Firstly lets be absolutely clear, the holocuast was an evil act of genocide perpetrated in the name of facism as much as Stalins pogroms and siberia pogroms. It happenned and theres no pint denying that it ever did happen as those that do are far right or far left so and sos (to put it politely)
However the question to ask is why would they deny something as evil as the holocaust took place. Many aredrawn from disaffected Roman Catholics or churches who are in part dependent on Roman Catholic education. They note that the papacy took a long time to acknowledge the holocaust and repair its relations with the jewish and orthodox christian faiths (in part as they sought to protect their own believers living in their countries due to the cold war). As such to deny its existence meant that they could 'front' those that had really perpetrated it. That was the raison detre of the misguided british far right in the 1970s.
So if The popes managed to visit the grave of the unknown soldier and seen the Concentration camps, is a real Gulag Archipeligo next on his to visit lists or that of any mainstream church?
Monday, 27 September 2010
Monday, 13 September 2010
essay 4
W4745067
TMA04
Analyse and explain the reasons why the ordination of women has been such a controversial issue. How did the controversy reflect the themes of conflict, conversion and coexistence?
AA307 concentrates on the Roman Catholic, Lutheran and in particular the Anglican church’s (English provinces of Canterbury and York unified) decisions on the ordination of women in the course text “Religion in History.” Further the relevant readings in Study Guide 4 (8 and 9) concentrate on experiences within the Church of England, with 8 being a report by the House of Bishops and 9 a personal reflection of a woman who opposed the ordination of women, was elected to the Church of England synod and who then abstained on a vote that passed by one allowing the ordination of women owing to a personal desire and calling to seek ordination herself. Reading 9 is thus a story of conflict, conversion and coexistence.
As such this question covers the topic of conversion of opinion within the church as well as conversion to other Christian churches by those who were opposed and couldn’t in conscience support the idea of women priests or episcopates under any circumstance. Generally they viewed the idea of the two integrities with disdain such as the husband of the woman who abstained at the synod vote in reading 9 as he became a Roman Catholic priest under the compromise agreement of the late Cardinal Basil Hume. Said agreement allowed for married Anglican Christians to exercise their ministry within the Roman Catholic Church and is a precursor to the agreement currently being discussed between Forward in Faith and Roman Catholicism of an ordinariat[1]. As such however vitriolic the rhetoric of some opponents within the debate in the 1980s that led the then Bishop of Edinburgh in part to resign his see, coexistence under the sovereign through ‘conversion to a different sub-tradition’ (Woolfe) occurred as did to conversion to Anglicanism of those who wanted equal rights for themselves and probably fancied the job having seen the Vicar of Dibley TV programme.[2]
To tackle the reasons of controversy without resorting to glib comments like that is something I have tried to follow in my life and yet at the same time sought to avoid as I wasn’t a theologian, classing my religion (though confirmed prior to going to uni) on my uni enrolment form in 1998 as NOYB (None of your business) for reasons I shall cover in this essay owing to the regrettable 1920s dispensation of religion in Wales against the Anglican church there until 2001/2. So to tackle this question I shall analyse the following:
1) Analyse the similarities and differences in the Roman Catholic and Church of England arguments both before and since the reformation.
2) Why these are controversial to evangelicals and their distinctive arguments against the ordination of women
3) How they impact on other churches in communion with Canterbury and the rest of the wider church that already have women pastors. Why did they do so and did they agitate against orthodoxy?
4) Why this was allowed and who tolerated it and why.
In understanding the disagreements over and arguments against the ordination of women Woolfe focuses on the Lutheran, Methodists, Anglican (with specific reference to the Church of England) and Roman Catholic. It is worth noting that the Christian (Eastern) Orthodox compromise on priestly celibacy which sees their parish clergy married with both husband and wife integrated into parish life but their bishops celibate was not covered much perhaps because it was not seen as directly relevant save as the medieval notion of daughters of eve being unfit for ordination[3], stemming from the Early Christian church and held in common by all the mainstream churches since the Nicean council convened by the Emperor Constantine[4] which acknowledged like Mumm[5] the role of women in Christianity “…as mentioned throughout Acts and the Epistles.”
However Chidester[6] notes the pre reformation writings of the theologian Albert the Great (1200-80) as showing arguments about the nature of women and their role within the church and from this whether Christs ministers should be women.
1) Since death entered the world through eve, new life of the resurrection should have come through a woman
2) Since the second person of the trinity is wisdom or sapientia, this should be given to a woman
3) Christ performs the role of giving new life to those who begin their oath of salvation
This can be viewed as a more relevant critique than that which was developed and honed in the post war period by some more extreme opponents of womens ordination based on a critique of the maternal role, the lectionary and menstruation and the diverging theologies of the Eucharist (specifically the turning of wine into Christs blood). Some of this actually provoked the concept of the vicar of Dibley as counter propaganda so was this a case of just desserts for excessive negativity?
Since the 1530s the Church of England developed its own opposition to women priests and episcopates to maintain its continuity with the church as founded in England by St Augustine. This developed in part as other churches and sects (such as the United Reformed, Congregationalists and Quakers) started having women ministers with the first generation of Methodists having women preachers. This occasional distinction is seen in some interpretations of the theology of St Paul (according to Mumm’s quotes from the Authorised version of the Bible). Thus there has already been coexistence.
In Mumm two attempts by the CofE to explain why women could not be priests are explained, namely 1920 where the practices of the first generations of Christians with male apostles would be considered normative. The second written in 1936 in summary argued that women do not look to male priests lustfully as opposed to a female priesthood as “…a male priesthood do not normally arouse that side of female nature which should be quiscient during the times of adoration to almighty God.” While “…on the other hand, that it would be impossible for the male members of the average Anglican Congregation to be present at a service at which a woman ministered without becoming unduly conscious of her sex.[7]” Frankly I found being an experiment for the Dibley set while a school student in London in the 1990s not conducive so I switched my sixth form study elsewhere and the methods of funding that are sometimes employed by them may be questionable but however well intentioned for the desire of helping the next generation and better healthcare because in the UK chaplaincy then was interdenominational (see below).
I chose non conflict and coexistence within the two integrities but was surprised at how few people turned up for my confirmation when I invited them. This indicates that the CofE acts as a unit or was not prepared to accept a former Roman Catholic presiding as the Bishop in a suffragin capacity at that time because of unity to one prayer book and the ecumenical interdenominational nature of the Christianity taught at that Church of England school at that time. This is regrettable given that bishops pastoral function to London Universities.
Yet in their defence, the debate and its advocates had been marshalled for up to 50 years before then. In Mumm, the case study of Li Tim Oi is discussed. She was a woman who was ordained into the Holy Catholic Church by Bishop R O Hall of Hong Kong and South China on 25/01/1944 which caused a letter from the then Archbishop of Canterbury deploring said ‘ordination’ and as such she only ministered sacraments to those who requested it until other provinces started to ordain women so she finished her career with the Chinese community in Canada. This contrasted with the Male centric rhetoric of Kinder Kurche Kuche of Goebells and the genocidal rants of Hitler within the Nazi propaganda machine which (when combined) made the traditional arguments against the role of women in the church less credible with the non conformists and Lutherans beginning to ordain women in the post war period
d) 1945- Roman Catholicism
Against this backdrop European Roman Catholicism rethought its opposition to have different lines of argument in accordance with the wishes of certain national synods.
The resulting document, Inter Insigniores of 1976 gave six reasons against womens ordination[8]:
-The constant tradition of the church
-Christ only chose male apostles
-The practice of the apostles
-The priest must bear a natural resemblance to Christ
-The male priesthood is part of the ‘mystery’ of the church
-Contemporary issues of gender do not apply to this context
This has produced measured debate and arguments in favour of women’s ordination in the succeeding years as well as women being ordained in the underground churches of Eastern Europe, with one asking why the church objected to the insertion of women into the process of saving souls[9]. There has thus been controversy in this debate as well with women gaining positions by endeavour in difficult and challenging circumstances.
In Study Guide 4 the impacts of the 1960s gender debates and ‘sexual revolution’ debate are also covered. While beyond the direct scope of the question, the resulting conflict and conversion of opinion that contraception and resultant counselling made women equal in procreation but different in their roles if children were produced and relationships formed. With some of these pressure groups forming alliances with the Gay Rights lobby as well difficulties occurred. Combined with in traditionalist’s eyes a further debasement of the Church of England with the appointment of Canon Gene Robinson to a US Anglican see and attempted appintment of Canon J John in the UK. Thus there has been some conversion but again the dangers of when the good do nothing or become believers in coexistence, the fundamental nature of the church alters.
Hence in the press there has been lots of mention of a somewhat juxtaposed notion given the radical and reforming routes of Evangelism, namely ‘Evangelical Conservatives.’ These can be viewed as Anglicans who accept the evangelical roots of mission, evangelism and the gospels to save and change humanity as viewed and interpreted through reading the bible. They use this to maintain the traditions and position of the Church of England within society. As such they fit into and in some way are precursors to the Big Society thinking of the current government. Their common ground with other opponents of women’s ordination is a belief in the male headship of the church as laid out in the bible. As such that their language of ‘equality but difference’ within monogamous relationships are more moderate than previous opponents of female ordination because their opposition focuses on the episcopate and are thus apparently less controversial, with many of their parishes having female deacons with no desire for promotion. This is an example of coexistence and conversion at the same time.
This contrasts with other denominations that say that their communion is with Canterbury (and by implication the vernacular English Language bible and its reformation though disagreeing about subsequent history). Their theologies have historically been to support the UK state (with the exception of the Church of Scotland whose allegiance is to the Crown) and to provide healing and ministry to support errors in the system by ministering to the entire population, something which Anglicanism in the post war period has started to develop itself. An annecdotal example I know of is the developing of medications to raise a woman’s height to reduce death in childbirth to support families. This supports the notions of the Royal Society and the Enlightenment but because such efforts are self supporting or using resources from their churches from overseas can be seen as secretive against the established church unless there is conversion to their denomination or tacit recognition of its benefits. Yet for many female relatives of Anglican clergy or Anglicans this saw ministry as a way of serving when the priesthood was closed prior to the creation of female deacons in the 1980[10]s and ‘priests’ in 1994. A glib comment that highlights conflict is that after the 1992 Walsingham protest against women’s ordination, how many of those men married female deacons who had a ‘reading 9’ experience[11]? From that one could deduce that the latest Rev programme could be a way of redressing the balance of the clergy for returning servicemen. Thus the peace dividend of the 1990s might be repeated in the second half of this decade as troops return from Afghanistan.
How this occurs is from my perspective and upon reflection the concept of the state (and possibly the crown) reinforcing and complementing in coexistence the established church in coexistence and how they pick up on each other. Thus after the first Gulf War and the end of the Cold War there was a Conservative victory at the General Election that the opposition was thought to have won. Said Labour manifesto had an undertaking for a constitutional convention, Bill of Rights and devolution in part in accordance with the pressure group Charter 88. With its failure a new perspective or project took hold of the body politic to reform it and it was championed from within the church to ‘save the Queen’ after 1992 which in some ways was deemed an annus horibilus. In my view it sought to convert but not to coexist as it was out to reform Labour away from Marxism and towards Christian Socialism. However its failing was that it did not seek to work with other parties but subdue them which denied the country a constitutional convention when it held a majority in the lower legislature in 1997. This in turn left a country dependant on its politicians when the monarchy was at its lowest in 1997. Whether this was the need for a diplomatic rapproachment with Islam and containment of its extremists. How that was strategised and developed is an example of coexistence and conversion. The influence of feminism on the church may actually have helped restrict conflict but at the expense of sound economics (which was failing following stock market runs in said year of 1992).
To analyse whether there has been conflict, conversion and coexistence, I return to the course text. In it Mumm starts her chapter by saying that:
“In this case study, conflict does not involve physical force or threats of violence, here conflict has been expressed verbally, symbolically and in writing. It has arisen from a mutually held conviction that those who hold the opposing view are in a state of fundamental error, which risks serious damage to the church involved.
The other major theme of the chapter is coexistence, where opposing viewpoints jostle uneasily within the same faith group. In the case of some denominations, de facto segregation of the two parties has been a visible and continuing source of unease.
Conversion is applicable only as a change of view within a tradition, although the decision to ordain women in the Church of England did provoke a small number of clergy and laity to join the Roman Catholic Church; and example of what John Woolfe describes elsewhere as a ‘change of allegiance between sub traditions (intro pg. 7)”
From this and in analysing the prose above I would say that the controversies of the Established church have produced conflict in terms of rhetoric, conversion between opinions about women’s ordination and coexistence between both. How long that is sustained is open to question following the General Synods vote in favour of women bishops.
Word Count: 2562
Bibliography
Wolffe, John, ed. Religion in History Conflict, Conversion and Coexistence (Manchester / Open, 2004)
Chidester, Christianity, A Global History
Study Guide 4 ‘The Death of Christian Britain’ specifically readings 8 and 9.
[1] Profile, Anglican Bishop of Fulham Radio 4 Saturday 17/07/10
[2] An interesting sub question would be had the new BBC series Rev been broadcast instead in the 1990s would women’s ordination have been slowed?
[3] Figure 1, pg 194, chapter 7 Mumm Susan in Woolfe, Religion in History, Conflict, Conversion and Coexistence.
[4] Op cit Pg. 193
[5] Pg. 191 Religion in History Ch. 7 Mumm, Susan
[6] Pgs. 248-9 Woolfe, Religion in History, Conflict, Conversion, Coexistence.
[7] (The Archbishops Commission, 1936 quoted in Woolf 1938 p.288)
[8] MUmm, Ch.7 pg. 209 in Woolfe Ed. Religion in History
[9] www.womensordination.org
[10] Figure 5 Photo of ordaining women deacons by Then Archbishop of Canterbury Dr Robert Runcie
Pg. 208 Mumm, Ch7 In Woolfe Religion in History (Manchester, 2004)
[11] Hiwever that is wahat texts such as Reading 9 are for in a free society to educate and persuade in a reasoned debate.
TMA04
Analyse and explain the reasons why the ordination of women has been such a controversial issue. How did the controversy reflect the themes of conflict, conversion and coexistence?
AA307 concentrates on the Roman Catholic, Lutheran and in particular the Anglican church’s (English provinces of Canterbury and York unified) decisions on the ordination of women in the course text “Religion in History.” Further the relevant readings in Study Guide 4 (8 and 9) concentrate on experiences within the Church of England, with 8 being a report by the House of Bishops and 9 a personal reflection of a woman who opposed the ordination of women, was elected to the Church of England synod and who then abstained on a vote that passed by one allowing the ordination of women owing to a personal desire and calling to seek ordination herself. Reading 9 is thus a story of conflict, conversion and coexistence.
As such this question covers the topic of conversion of opinion within the church as well as conversion to other Christian churches by those who were opposed and couldn’t in conscience support the idea of women priests or episcopates under any circumstance. Generally they viewed the idea of the two integrities with disdain such as the husband of the woman who abstained at the synod vote in reading 9 as he became a Roman Catholic priest under the compromise agreement of the late Cardinal Basil Hume. Said agreement allowed for married Anglican Christians to exercise their ministry within the Roman Catholic Church and is a precursor to the agreement currently being discussed between Forward in Faith and Roman Catholicism of an ordinariat[1]. As such however vitriolic the rhetoric of some opponents within the debate in the 1980s that led the then Bishop of Edinburgh in part to resign his see, coexistence under the sovereign through ‘conversion to a different sub-tradition’ (Woolfe) occurred as did to conversion to Anglicanism of those who wanted equal rights for themselves and probably fancied the job having seen the Vicar of Dibley TV programme.[2]
To tackle the reasons of controversy without resorting to glib comments like that is something I have tried to follow in my life and yet at the same time sought to avoid as I wasn’t a theologian, classing my religion (though confirmed prior to going to uni) on my uni enrolment form in 1998 as NOYB (None of your business) for reasons I shall cover in this essay owing to the regrettable 1920s dispensation of religion in Wales against the Anglican church there until 2001/2. So to tackle this question I shall analyse the following:
1) Analyse the similarities and differences in the Roman Catholic and Church of England arguments both before and since the reformation.
2) Why these are controversial to evangelicals and their distinctive arguments against the ordination of women
3) How they impact on other churches in communion with Canterbury and the rest of the wider church that already have women pastors. Why did they do so and did they agitate against orthodoxy?
4) Why this was allowed and who tolerated it and why.
In understanding the disagreements over and arguments against the ordination of women Woolfe focuses on the Lutheran, Methodists, Anglican (with specific reference to the Church of England) and Roman Catholic. It is worth noting that the Christian (Eastern) Orthodox compromise on priestly celibacy which sees their parish clergy married with both husband and wife integrated into parish life but their bishops celibate was not covered much perhaps because it was not seen as directly relevant save as the medieval notion of daughters of eve being unfit for ordination[3], stemming from the Early Christian church and held in common by all the mainstream churches since the Nicean council convened by the Emperor Constantine[4] which acknowledged like Mumm[5] the role of women in Christianity “…as mentioned throughout Acts and the Epistles.”
However Chidester[6] notes the pre reformation writings of the theologian Albert the Great (1200-80) as showing arguments about the nature of women and their role within the church and from this whether Christs ministers should be women.
1) Since death entered the world through eve, new life of the resurrection should have come through a woman
2) Since the second person of the trinity is wisdom or sapientia, this should be given to a woman
3) Christ performs the role of giving new life to those who begin their oath of salvation
This can be viewed as a more relevant critique than that which was developed and honed in the post war period by some more extreme opponents of womens ordination based on a critique of the maternal role, the lectionary and menstruation and the diverging theologies of the Eucharist (specifically the turning of wine into Christs blood). Some of this actually provoked the concept of the vicar of Dibley as counter propaganda so was this a case of just desserts for excessive negativity?
Since the 1530s the Church of England developed its own opposition to women priests and episcopates to maintain its continuity with the church as founded in England by St Augustine. This developed in part as other churches and sects (such as the United Reformed, Congregationalists and Quakers) started having women ministers with the first generation of Methodists having women preachers. This occasional distinction is seen in some interpretations of the theology of St Paul (according to Mumm’s quotes from the Authorised version of the Bible). Thus there has already been coexistence.
In Mumm two attempts by the CofE to explain why women could not be priests are explained, namely 1920 where the practices of the first generations of Christians with male apostles would be considered normative. The second written in 1936 in summary argued that women do not look to male priests lustfully as opposed to a female priesthood as “…a male priesthood do not normally arouse that side of female nature which should be quiscient during the times of adoration to almighty God.” While “…on the other hand, that it would be impossible for the male members of the average Anglican Congregation to be present at a service at which a woman ministered without becoming unduly conscious of her sex.[7]” Frankly I found being an experiment for the Dibley set while a school student in London in the 1990s not conducive so I switched my sixth form study elsewhere and the methods of funding that are sometimes employed by them may be questionable but however well intentioned for the desire of helping the next generation and better healthcare because in the UK chaplaincy then was interdenominational (see below).
I chose non conflict and coexistence within the two integrities but was surprised at how few people turned up for my confirmation when I invited them. This indicates that the CofE acts as a unit or was not prepared to accept a former Roman Catholic presiding as the Bishop in a suffragin capacity at that time because of unity to one prayer book and the ecumenical interdenominational nature of the Christianity taught at that Church of England school at that time. This is regrettable given that bishops pastoral function to London Universities.
Yet in their defence, the debate and its advocates had been marshalled for up to 50 years before then. In Mumm, the case study of Li Tim Oi is discussed. She was a woman who was ordained into the Holy Catholic Church by Bishop R O Hall of Hong Kong and South China on 25/01/1944 which caused a letter from the then Archbishop of Canterbury deploring said ‘ordination’ and as such she only ministered sacraments to those who requested it until other provinces started to ordain women so she finished her career with the Chinese community in Canada. This contrasted with the Male centric rhetoric of Kinder Kurche Kuche of Goebells and the genocidal rants of Hitler within the Nazi propaganda machine which (when combined) made the traditional arguments against the role of women in the church less credible with the non conformists and Lutherans beginning to ordain women in the post war period
d) 1945- Roman Catholicism
Against this backdrop European Roman Catholicism rethought its opposition to have different lines of argument in accordance with the wishes of certain national synods.
The resulting document, Inter Insigniores of 1976 gave six reasons against womens ordination[8]:
-The constant tradition of the church
-Christ only chose male apostles
-The practice of the apostles
-The priest must bear a natural resemblance to Christ
-The male priesthood is part of the ‘mystery’ of the church
-Contemporary issues of gender do not apply to this context
This has produced measured debate and arguments in favour of women’s ordination in the succeeding years as well as women being ordained in the underground churches of Eastern Europe, with one asking why the church objected to the insertion of women into the process of saving souls[9]. There has thus been controversy in this debate as well with women gaining positions by endeavour in difficult and challenging circumstances.
In Study Guide 4 the impacts of the 1960s gender debates and ‘sexual revolution’ debate are also covered. While beyond the direct scope of the question, the resulting conflict and conversion of opinion that contraception and resultant counselling made women equal in procreation but different in their roles if children were produced and relationships formed. With some of these pressure groups forming alliances with the Gay Rights lobby as well difficulties occurred. Combined with in traditionalist’s eyes a further debasement of the Church of England with the appointment of Canon Gene Robinson to a US Anglican see and attempted appintment of Canon J John in the UK. Thus there has been some conversion but again the dangers of when the good do nothing or become believers in coexistence, the fundamental nature of the church alters.
Hence in the press there has been lots of mention of a somewhat juxtaposed notion given the radical and reforming routes of Evangelism, namely ‘Evangelical Conservatives.’ These can be viewed as Anglicans who accept the evangelical roots of mission, evangelism and the gospels to save and change humanity as viewed and interpreted through reading the bible. They use this to maintain the traditions and position of the Church of England within society. As such they fit into and in some way are precursors to the Big Society thinking of the current government. Their common ground with other opponents of women’s ordination is a belief in the male headship of the church as laid out in the bible. As such that their language of ‘equality but difference’ within monogamous relationships are more moderate than previous opponents of female ordination because their opposition focuses on the episcopate and are thus apparently less controversial, with many of their parishes having female deacons with no desire for promotion. This is an example of coexistence and conversion at the same time.
This contrasts with other denominations that say that their communion is with Canterbury (and by implication the vernacular English Language bible and its reformation though disagreeing about subsequent history). Their theologies have historically been to support the UK state (with the exception of the Church of Scotland whose allegiance is to the Crown) and to provide healing and ministry to support errors in the system by ministering to the entire population, something which Anglicanism in the post war period has started to develop itself. An annecdotal example I know of is the developing of medications to raise a woman’s height to reduce death in childbirth to support families. This supports the notions of the Royal Society and the Enlightenment but because such efforts are self supporting or using resources from their churches from overseas can be seen as secretive against the established church unless there is conversion to their denomination or tacit recognition of its benefits. Yet for many female relatives of Anglican clergy or Anglicans this saw ministry as a way of serving when the priesthood was closed prior to the creation of female deacons in the 1980[10]s and ‘priests’ in 1994. A glib comment that highlights conflict is that after the 1992 Walsingham protest against women’s ordination, how many of those men married female deacons who had a ‘reading 9’ experience[11]? From that one could deduce that the latest Rev programme could be a way of redressing the balance of the clergy for returning servicemen. Thus the peace dividend of the 1990s might be repeated in the second half of this decade as troops return from Afghanistan.
How this occurs is from my perspective and upon reflection the concept of the state (and possibly the crown) reinforcing and complementing in coexistence the established church in coexistence and how they pick up on each other. Thus after the first Gulf War and the end of the Cold War there was a Conservative victory at the General Election that the opposition was thought to have won. Said Labour manifesto had an undertaking for a constitutional convention, Bill of Rights and devolution in part in accordance with the pressure group Charter 88. With its failure a new perspective or project took hold of the body politic to reform it and it was championed from within the church to ‘save the Queen’ after 1992 which in some ways was deemed an annus horibilus. In my view it sought to convert but not to coexist as it was out to reform Labour away from Marxism and towards Christian Socialism. However its failing was that it did not seek to work with other parties but subdue them which denied the country a constitutional convention when it held a majority in the lower legislature in 1997. This in turn left a country dependant on its politicians when the monarchy was at its lowest in 1997. Whether this was the need for a diplomatic rapproachment with Islam and containment of its extremists. How that was strategised and developed is an example of coexistence and conversion. The influence of feminism on the church may actually have helped restrict conflict but at the expense of sound economics (which was failing following stock market runs in said year of 1992).
To analyse whether there has been conflict, conversion and coexistence, I return to the course text. In it Mumm starts her chapter by saying that:
“In this case study, conflict does not involve physical force or threats of violence, here conflict has been expressed verbally, symbolically and in writing. It has arisen from a mutually held conviction that those who hold the opposing view are in a state of fundamental error, which risks serious damage to the church involved.
The other major theme of the chapter is coexistence, where opposing viewpoints jostle uneasily within the same faith group. In the case of some denominations, de facto segregation of the two parties has been a visible and continuing source of unease.
Conversion is applicable only as a change of view within a tradition, although the decision to ordain women in the Church of England did provoke a small number of clergy and laity to join the Roman Catholic Church; and example of what John Woolfe describes elsewhere as a ‘change of allegiance between sub traditions (intro pg. 7)”
From this and in analysing the prose above I would say that the controversies of the Established church have produced conflict in terms of rhetoric, conversion between opinions about women’s ordination and coexistence between both. How long that is sustained is open to question following the General Synods vote in favour of women bishops.
Word Count: 2562
Bibliography
Wolffe, John, ed. Religion in History Conflict, Conversion and Coexistence (Manchester / Open, 2004)
Chidester, Christianity, A Global History
Study Guide 4 ‘The Death of Christian Britain’ specifically readings 8 and 9.
[1] Profile, Anglican Bishop of Fulham Radio 4 Saturday 17/07/10
[2] An interesting sub question would be had the new BBC series Rev been broadcast instead in the 1990s would women’s ordination have been slowed?
[3] Figure 1, pg 194, chapter 7 Mumm Susan in Woolfe, Religion in History, Conflict, Conversion and Coexistence.
[4] Op cit Pg. 193
[5] Pg. 191 Religion in History Ch. 7 Mumm, Susan
[6] Pgs. 248-9 Woolfe, Religion in History, Conflict, Conversion, Coexistence.
[7] (The Archbishops Commission, 1936 quoted in Woolf 1938 p.288)
[8] MUmm, Ch.7 pg. 209 in Woolfe Ed. Religion in History
[9] www.womensordination.org
[10] Figure 5 Photo of ordaining women deacons by Then Archbishop of Canterbury Dr Robert Runcie
Pg. 208 Mumm, Ch7 In Woolfe Religion in History (Manchester, 2004)
[11] Hiwever that is wahat texts such as Reading 9 are for in a free society to educate and persuade in a reasoned debate.
Saturday, 11 September 2010
essay 3
W4745067:
TMA03
Compare and contrast the accounts by Mark Noll (study Guide 3, Reading 1) and Alexis De Tocqueville (Study Guide 3, Reading 2) of the role of religion in political life in the United States in the early nineteenth century.
How important was Christian Identity to the development of American Nationhood by 1865?
Word Limit 1500-2000 words.
The first thing to note is that the texts are differing types of Sources. Reading 2 is a primary reflective source of evidence of someone who visited America and examined the state of the United Sates and in particular its Roman Catholic (esp Fench Community), possibly as a diplomat or spy for the French Republic cementing the alliance between France and the United States from 1778 and the American war of independence. This differs from Nolls reading 1’s more analytical reprinted report from 2002.[1] Noll sought to use census and building data to argue about the structure of the discussed evangelical surge and change of the composition of the denominations in the United States as in the first decades Anglicanism declined as a result of movement away from the USA or change of denomination (in particular New England) and the casualties of the war of independence.
Noll starts by saying “No other period of American History ever witnessed such a dramatic rise in religious adherence and corresponding religious influence on the broader national culture.” This agrees in part with Tocqueville who observes that the Catholic influx, predominantly from Ireland, “..made proselytes, so that [then] more than a million Christians professing the truths of Rome are to be found within the Union.” So both Evangelicals and Catholics sought to expand their numbers through conversion of what had been British America and emigration from Europe to settle in it. As such both had the potential for a large impact on The United States political life as while the Protestants were undoubtedly numerically more, The Catholics were clustered in the urban centres.
Tocqueville notes that the American republic was founded by men who had shaken off the authority of the pope[2], so that the new republic was founded in a way in which
W4745067 pg.2
politics and religion were separate. This agrees with and supports Noll’s assertion that there was an evangelical surge and church building programme so that 59-91% of the population could be seated in them and his argument that one of the denominations that was successful was the Methodists (schisms into differing groupings notwithstanding[3]). However Tocqueville sees Catholicism as equally supportive of the republic as “…the most republican and democratic class of the United States.[4]” He also observes that most of the Catholics are poor and as such the democratic system allows them to engage with the system and flourish.
Tocqueville’s argument on that is that apart from the priest, Catholic doctrine ensures that all men are equal (Para 4) and that sometimes they take their part with the governing classes (in the old world) or sometimes the side of the democracy (In America) as while faith and doctrine were unquestionable, political truths are open to free enquiry and thus “It may be asserted then, that in the United States no religious doctrine displays the slightest hostility to democratic and republican institutions.”
Tocqueville highlights the common ground as that all the clergy of the different sects here hold the same language; “…their opinions are in agreement with the laws, and the human mind flows onwards, so to speak in one undivided current[5]” as all the churches require the state and church to be separate to maintain the integrity of their own congregation in a secular republic of all churches. The best synopsis of his thinking that thus highlights the common ground between the readings is in paragraph 24 of Tocqueville:
“The Americans combine the notions of Christianity and of liberty so intimately in their minds that it is impossible to make them conceive the one without the other, and with them this conviction does not spring from that barren, traditionary faith that seems to vegetate rather than to live in the soul.”
This suggests that religion was a support to the rule of law and that Judeau-Christian values from whichever church underpinned the rule of law and democracy. However
W4745067 pg. 3
it is also important to note that Noll’s analysis covers a full fifteen years more than Tocqueville as he finishes in 1845 whereas Nolls evidence goes up to 1860. When Chidester looks at the disagreements over slavery within the states of the American Republic and between Northern and Southern Baptists of the time he takes the analysis up to the Beginning of the American Civil War in 1860.
In his Discussion with Professor Woolfe in Audio CD 3 Chidester notes that no one religion is allowed to be established under the American system of governance. In his book[6] he notes this rational form of Christianity as a form of Enlightenment Deism and that new forms of post American independence Christianity were “…innovations in democracy” Citing the written work of Jefferson and Paine in which the former sought to create “The most sublime and benevolent code of morals which has ever been offered to man.” Paine sought to suppress the free exercise of reason under the weight of orthodoxy and tradition which meant it wasn’t ‘open to every man alike’ which in Paines opinion made them “human inventions, set up to terrify and enslave mankind and monopolize power and profit.” As such religion had to be founded on reason and not dogma or revelation or plain fear of the Catholic Quebecequois in the St Lawrence Valley to the North[7]. This makes for a challenge to both Noll’s contention for an evangelical surge and Tocquevilles notion that Catholicism was open to all in a democracy as both are sectional and biased to their denominations.
However a better analysis might be that co-existence after the conflict of the American war of independence made logical sense under that rationalist framework of the Constitution. Chidester also notes that those who still dissented such as the Mormons moved west so expansion into the Louisianna purchase and the turning of the American Zion into farmland and railroads, loosely characterised by Hollywood as ‘how the west was won’ occurred. This creation of new states sought to create freedom for dissension with the coalition of states that made up the American union. However this allowed for the retention of segregation post 1865 and by implication a flaw in the unions ideal that ‘all men are created equal[8]’ This differs markedly from
W4745067 pg. 4
the English religious settlement discussed in Block 2 whereby the established church keeps the country together under Parliament with other churches advising ministers of
the crown or lawfully constituted offices of the state. Civic action programmes therefore work differently in both states even if their objectives are the same because of the differing nature and interpretations of the constitution by differing churches and now other faiths depending on their interpretation of the constitution. Hence the ideals of a rational faith, science and the rule of law within governance are as important now as they were in Tocquevilles day trying to unify North America as an ally of France.
Word Count: 1151
Bibliography
OU Course AA307 Study Guide 3, Readings 1 and 2:
Reading 1: Noll,
Reading 2:
OU Course AA307 Study Guide 2, Chronology
Chidester, David A Global History (Penguin 2000)
Woolfe, John, ed. Religion in History: Conflict, conversion and coexistence pgs. 110-112.
Transcript of Course AA307 CD 3.
[1] Noll, Mark A Americas God: From Jonathan Edwards to Abraham Lincoln, (2002, Oxford University Press)
[2] Para 2, reading 2 Toqueville
[3] Para 8, reading 1 Noll
[4] Op Cit Para 3 reading 2 Toqueville
[5] Paragraph 9, Reading 2, Study Guide 3, Toqueville
[6] Ch 23 American Zion in Chidester, David, Christianity, A Global History.
[7] Pg. 111-2 Woolfe, John ed Religion in History, Conflict, Conversion, Coexistence.
[8] Preamble, American Constitution
TMA03
Compare and contrast the accounts by Mark Noll (study Guide 3, Reading 1) and Alexis De Tocqueville (Study Guide 3, Reading 2) of the role of religion in political life in the United States in the early nineteenth century.
How important was Christian Identity to the development of American Nationhood by 1865?
Word Limit 1500-2000 words.
The first thing to note is that the texts are differing types of Sources. Reading 2 is a primary reflective source of evidence of someone who visited America and examined the state of the United Sates and in particular its Roman Catholic (esp Fench Community), possibly as a diplomat or spy for the French Republic cementing the alliance between France and the United States from 1778 and the American war of independence. This differs from Nolls reading 1’s more analytical reprinted report from 2002.[1] Noll sought to use census and building data to argue about the structure of the discussed evangelical surge and change of the composition of the denominations in the United States as in the first decades Anglicanism declined as a result of movement away from the USA or change of denomination (in particular New England) and the casualties of the war of independence.
Noll starts by saying “No other period of American History ever witnessed such a dramatic rise in religious adherence and corresponding religious influence on the broader national culture.” This agrees in part with Tocqueville who observes that the Catholic influx, predominantly from Ireland, “..made proselytes, so that [then] more than a million Christians professing the truths of Rome are to be found within the Union.” So both Evangelicals and Catholics sought to expand their numbers through conversion of what had been British America and emigration from Europe to settle in it. As such both had the potential for a large impact on The United States political life as while the Protestants were undoubtedly numerically more, The Catholics were clustered in the urban centres.
Tocqueville notes that the American republic was founded by men who had shaken off the authority of the pope[2], so that the new republic was founded in a way in which
W4745067 pg.2
politics and religion were separate. This agrees with and supports Noll’s assertion that there was an evangelical surge and church building programme so that 59-91% of the population could be seated in them and his argument that one of the denominations that was successful was the Methodists (schisms into differing groupings notwithstanding[3]). However Tocqueville sees Catholicism as equally supportive of the republic as “…the most republican and democratic class of the United States.[4]” He also observes that most of the Catholics are poor and as such the democratic system allows them to engage with the system and flourish.
Tocqueville’s argument on that is that apart from the priest, Catholic doctrine ensures that all men are equal (Para 4) and that sometimes they take their part with the governing classes (in the old world) or sometimes the side of the democracy (In America) as while faith and doctrine were unquestionable, political truths are open to free enquiry and thus “It may be asserted then, that in the United States no religious doctrine displays the slightest hostility to democratic and republican institutions.”
Tocqueville highlights the common ground as that all the clergy of the different sects here hold the same language; “…their opinions are in agreement with the laws, and the human mind flows onwards, so to speak in one undivided current[5]” as all the churches require the state and church to be separate to maintain the integrity of their own congregation in a secular republic of all churches. The best synopsis of his thinking that thus highlights the common ground between the readings is in paragraph 24 of Tocqueville:
“The Americans combine the notions of Christianity and of liberty so intimately in their minds that it is impossible to make them conceive the one without the other, and with them this conviction does not spring from that barren, traditionary faith that seems to vegetate rather than to live in the soul.”
This suggests that religion was a support to the rule of law and that Judeau-Christian values from whichever church underpinned the rule of law and democracy. However
W4745067 pg. 3
it is also important to note that Noll’s analysis covers a full fifteen years more than Tocqueville as he finishes in 1845 whereas Nolls evidence goes up to 1860. When Chidester looks at the disagreements over slavery within the states of the American Republic and between Northern and Southern Baptists of the time he takes the analysis up to the Beginning of the American Civil War in 1860.
In his Discussion with Professor Woolfe in Audio CD 3 Chidester notes that no one religion is allowed to be established under the American system of governance. In his book[6] he notes this rational form of Christianity as a form of Enlightenment Deism and that new forms of post American independence Christianity were “…innovations in democracy” Citing the written work of Jefferson and Paine in which the former sought to create “The most sublime and benevolent code of morals which has ever been offered to man.” Paine sought to suppress the free exercise of reason under the weight of orthodoxy and tradition which meant it wasn’t ‘open to every man alike’ which in Paines opinion made them “human inventions, set up to terrify and enslave mankind and monopolize power and profit.” As such religion had to be founded on reason and not dogma or revelation or plain fear of the Catholic Quebecequois in the St Lawrence Valley to the North[7]. This makes for a challenge to both Noll’s contention for an evangelical surge and Tocquevilles notion that Catholicism was open to all in a democracy as both are sectional and biased to their denominations.
However a better analysis might be that co-existence after the conflict of the American war of independence made logical sense under that rationalist framework of the Constitution. Chidester also notes that those who still dissented such as the Mormons moved west so expansion into the Louisianna purchase and the turning of the American Zion into farmland and railroads, loosely characterised by Hollywood as ‘how the west was won’ occurred. This creation of new states sought to create freedom for dissension with the coalition of states that made up the American union. However this allowed for the retention of segregation post 1865 and by implication a flaw in the unions ideal that ‘all men are created equal[8]’ This differs markedly from
W4745067 pg. 4
the English religious settlement discussed in Block 2 whereby the established church keeps the country together under Parliament with other churches advising ministers of
the crown or lawfully constituted offices of the state. Civic action programmes therefore work differently in both states even if their objectives are the same because of the differing nature and interpretations of the constitution by differing churches and now other faiths depending on their interpretation of the constitution. Hence the ideals of a rational faith, science and the rule of law within governance are as important now as they were in Tocquevilles day trying to unify North America as an ally of France.
Word Count: 1151
Bibliography
OU Course AA307 Study Guide 3, Readings 1 and 2:
Reading 1: Noll,
Reading 2:
OU Course AA307 Study Guide 2, Chronology
Chidester, David A Global History (Penguin 2000)
Woolfe, John, ed. Religion in History: Conflict, conversion and coexistence pgs. 110-112.
Transcript of Course AA307 CD 3.
[1] Noll, Mark A Americas God: From Jonathan Edwards to Abraham Lincoln, (2002, Oxford University Press)
[2] Para 2, reading 2 Toqueville
[3] Para 8, reading 1 Noll
[4] Op Cit Para 3 reading 2 Toqueville
[5] Paragraph 9, Reading 2, Study Guide 3, Toqueville
[6] Ch 23 American Zion in Chidester, David, Christianity, A Global History.
[7] Pg. 111-2 Woolfe, John ed Religion in History, Conflict, Conversion, Coexistence.
[8] Preamble, American Constitution
essay2
W4745067 pg.1
TMA02
What factors worked against mutual toleration between Catholics and Protestants between the mid sixteenth century and the end of the nineteenth century?
In answering this question first I shall look at the theological differences between the Catholics and Protestants as explained by John Bossy and John Chidester and the CD. Then I will turn to the case study of The UK and Irish Republics churches and the impact that the German reformation had on them outlined by the second course CD and the resultant economic and religious history behind the failings of the Irish Anglican Church to deliver a unified system of religion owing to historic loyalties be they to the sovereign or the Pope of the population and linguistic tolerance for the whole Island of Ireland that in the nineteenth century shifted to language and culture rather than religion. I shall then turn to the resultant establishment of linguistic revival as its counter in the nineteenth century. I will conclude with the factors be looked at as how this inspired armed resistance in 1916 which led to the split between Britain and Ireland rather than a federal union of the Isles and the whole Empire. This will draw on the course textbooks for the period in the question to answer. I will conclude with the key factors that emerge from this analysis that worked against Protestant - Catholic mutual toleration. Thankfully this time period is more tolerant thanks to interdenominational and inter faith initiatives whatever the ‘gut instincts’ of their individual adherents.
Bossy’s argument about the difference of sacraments is a more detailed than what is explained in the audio CD and covers a diverging view of the sacraments and purgatory that inspired reform. There can be viewed that there was a danger of an after effect from the crusades seeing Christian states taking it out on each other as the reformation can be seen as a war against impurities of the soul rather than and instead
W4745067 pg.2
of redemption through violence the former Advocated by Zwingli described in the course CD and developed by him and his followers following his debate in Zurich.
Turning to Britain and Ireland as the case study I note the after-effects of the Spanish armada that had at that time been endorsed by the papacy that had excommunicated Queen Elizabeth I from Rome and authorised ‘regime change’[1] the Spanish king Philip II to reclaim the kingdom of England[2] that he had been husband but not king of under the previous Queen Mary I. During that time he had supported her attempts to bring it back to Roman Catholicism indirectly and spasmodically. As a result the English population viewed Ireland and the Highlands of Scotland with suspicion for showing support to the defeated ships caught in the storms. This has historically created a centre and periphery in terms of investment and at that time the main cities were London, Edinburgh and then Bristol for the developing tea and slave trade as the basis for a merchant navy under companies at the Royal Exchange developed further by James 1st to defend and enrich the crown and the realm and aid scientific and cultural exploration.
Hence war was a factor with the failings of an integrated peace plan and pre Westphalia and the formal abolition of the Holy Roam Empire with its claims of Roman Catholic temporal superiority over the papacy a lack of international law that fully recognised individual state sovereignty regardless of the confession of the ruler
W4745067 pg.3
and any territorial or economic gains any country made as part of its conflict and conversion or coexistence in the non European world discussed in the next study
topic. This lack of a framework for dialogue and tolerance can and did create difficulties fuelled by propaganda against other states on the back of the last war as a crude warning for them not to seek retaliation. In city’s where there were diplomat and immigration populations centres produced mutual intolerance, one example of which was the Gordon or Ritualism riots in London in the nineteenth century. This created a differing procedure for them which until recently with government citizenship initiatives and any attempt to grant those working and paying taxes here an amnesty, played into the hands of the politicial far right.
Such incidents were despite and perhaps as a result of a fearful reaction to the enlightenment thinking of the eighteenth century combined with the Oxford movements attempts at reconciliation with Rome. Followers of the martyrs memorial petition in the nineteenth century mentioned By Dr Susan Mumm in CD 2 could have seen such attempts as a corruption of the Church of England from its foundation of the book of common prayer and the articles of religion and other Christian denominations opinions that English should have paramount usage and their theology of the healing of the bible in the vernacular, derived from Luther’s 95 thesis in Wurtenberg and the German Reformation.
This justification by prayer book and articles is inspired and established in Edward VI reign, restored by Elizabeth I and reaffirmed by King Charles II upon his accession to
W4745067 pg. 4
the throne after the 1660 restoration of the crown after the Cromwellian Commonwealth. This view was espoused by a fearful population against both Irish
immigration produced by the potato famine of that time and the economic turmoil that lay behind that owing to structural difficulties in the British Imperial economy[3]. From
that perspective at these times the idea of immigrants threatening their livelihood seemed a real threat.
In the mainland UK there was also Dynastic feuding owing to the lack of a coherent whole British Isles state with accurate communication between all its population centres and a universally supported church that enjoyed majority support in all its home island territories as a result of the factors analysed above. This occurred due to a lack of technology of later in the modern age and the fact picked up on in the study guide chronology that there were diverging reformations in England and Scotland. Calvinism took a differing form in the Scottish Reformation owing to differing trade links on Scotlands East Coast and a separate vernacular document in the Scots tongue and then Knox’s psalter which was more stridently distinct from any notion of being a ‘reformed and catholic’ church that it had taken in England. Another reason was the feuding within the House of Stuart under the mother of James 1st Queen Mary between these Calvinist Presbyterians and the Roman Catholic and English supporting
W4745067 pg. 5
aristocracy. This resulted in church schisms and protestant plantations as those to whom the compromise of James VI (I of England) regency saw dissent from their
covenant to one another and their perceptions of kirk. When James I and VI sought to repair this in his reign from London by seeking to introduce the prayer book and articles of religion this caused
further alienation but did produce the Episcopalian church, loyal to Canterbury and King that was distinct from the Scottish states established church.
Thus these difficulties saw some settled elsewhere with some support from Elizabeth I at the end of her reign as the Cecil’s began to negotiate the succession to the monarch. The major example was in Ulster to keep down catholic lords in Ireland on land confiscated from them in battle by Elizabeth’s forces, antagonising Catholic Protestant relations and creating Londonderry in need of defence by William of Orange in a later reign. All of this was there as the lack of a coherent form of governance equal to England was still occurring despite the 1540 upgrading from Overlord of Ireland to King in Henry VIII’s title. The English overlordship of Ireland was an occurance from the reign of Henry II claiming title over the Earl of Pembroke’s lands in Ireland which he had gained after marrying the High Kings Daughter after he restored him to his throne following an invite to do so to Henry II from the Pope.
Hence the notion of fusion of countries was fraught with difficulty and occured after conquest usually in europe without the use of referenda and international law prior to
W4745067 pg. 6
the EU and the only way that was done in the more distant past was one sided and anti semitic (Austrian anschluss the proving ground of Goebell’s nice and nasty approach
portraying the allegedly nice austrian Hitler against the allegedly nasty thieving Jews, later compounded by Goebells in the war saying that they were rats and vermin). Had
Hitler had the electoral reform and referenda commission in his day and played by the rules of the League of Nations, would the Jews not have perished in the death camps
of Auschwitz and Birkenau. Not if you read the writings of the man and Mein Kampf in which he places his woes at their behest. So how did the genocidal maniac slip through in Germany? Note pictures in Chidester and the despair of not being unified by temporal rulers, the idea of a new Charlemagne idealised warfare and the UK as a
potential ally with visits by Chamberlain bolstering support for the Nazi regime in the 1930s in Hitler’s mind and the political ambitions of Churchill who is said to asked Hitler about the plight of the Jews when he was in Germany.
Hence under economic analysis it can be argued that to win an empire the Union of crowns in an era prior to proper fiscal regulation, fiscal borrowing against land in England and Ireland occurred without reference to its long term sustainability as such concepts hadn’t been developed scientifically on the basis of the plantations, prior to attempts at UK wide parliamentary regulation of this practice after the 1829 Emancipation of Catholics Act which sought to reduce the antagonisms and resentments of previous legislation.
There was also a lack of an Anglican prayer book for the Gaels as conformity was in Language and the Irish and Scots dialects were being separated by differing
W4745067 pg. 7
codification in writing as oral culture was codified. Further other Protestant faith communities under the then English speaking Irish Parliament in Dublin vetoed this
and enforced it harshly in places by the nonconformists who again differed in religion and believed in no surrender to popery for fear of death in some very vocal and visceral speeches to ‘wake the population up to the message of grace and salvation of
‘Jesus Christ’ (See Paisley account of History in study guide two) and no right of return to their areas of Scotland and England having worked themselves out of
poverty. Those horrified by that or during the 1801-1921 fusion of Parliaments sought to build a common linguistic revival to build up through civil society bilingualism across all churches and allow from an Anglican perspective more clergy who could
minister to the whole population and convert through co-existence. How this was viewed and commented on in mainland Britain at the time is of note with the ideals of the pre-eminence of the English language and the empire conquering the whole world created fear that they couldn’t support this and defend and sustain the entire empire.
This Differs from the welsh common prayer book movement granted royal patronage under Elizabeth 1st and saw itself as part of the church of England but linguistically distinct. It was self financing by the welsh commerce and print community within the city (Study Guide 2) and who wanted equality with England within the union under a common crown (why Plaid Cymru has historically in the twentieth century not been a specifically pro independence party as it united nonconformists and Anglicans horrified with war of both conflicts and wanting to rebuild the UK as a federation of
W4745067 pg.8
Kingdoms until the EU and SNP policy developments of Independence in Europe replaced Independence in the Commonwealth in their rhetoric at election time). [4]
Hence a resultant fear of persecution and a lack of a mercantile and industrial base on the island of Ireland led to an agriculture based economy that was backward compared with England and couldn’t cope in the 1840s with washout harvests leading to starvation and poverty or support in full the required level of evangelism and clergy
training for documents and services in Irish and Gaelic. This can be seen as a consequence of the great game of nations against the predominantly Roman Catholic French and Spanish being won on the back of slavery. This was where companies based on diverging faith communities with destinations to differing American colonies pre 1787 funded conquest elsewhere as the UK gained an empire but lacked a way to govern it without population movements under a rule of law at the centre, unlike America after the revolutionary wars.
However as naval technology and communications improved the concept of the rule of law. This was then enforced by the victorious and better managed British navy from Trafalgar. It was then used to abolish slavery and curtail piracy on the high seas of the Atlantic while the Americans still had the former, In turn this then enabled Queen Victoria to end slavery there as well by backing Abraham Lincoln over the South as UK citizens regardless of faith, denomination or branch fought to stop slavery, inspired by the fact that they were no longer doing it themselves and
W4745067 pg.9
campaigns in the press and supplications to Parliament. However there were those who fought to keep slavery as well and this divide in the aristocracy saw some
resistance to home rule as well and partly justified paranoia against the other be it Marxism, socialism, Germans or Russians.[5]
Ultimately the issues in diverging churches and across these isles that fuelled these divisions were incomplete unity and historic divisions of country because there are distinct nations on these islands and there was a conflicting doctrines of supremacy and lineage stemming from the desire of Henry VIII to have a son to stop the
bloodshed of civil war of the preceding century. It was also to found the idea of the empire distinct from Rome to defend the Catholic faith and unify the Island without the excesses of Edward 1st as his sister was Queen of Scotland. Hence with the benefit of hindsight there were failures of structures of law and governance based on mutual respect and harmony within the country owing to real and perceived threats from overseas. How the countries of the UK and the Irish Republic emerged is beyond the scope of this essay however the inability to stop the revolt of 1916 because it was a right to rebel and justified as Ireland was in the view of nineteenth century Sinn Fein at that time as a seperate country distinct from the papal recognition of the British Crown and hidden from the mainland UK population during the troubles is still used as false justification by the Real IRA.
W4745067 pg. 10
Hence in my view there is a need for Alliance for Democracy as a political party at this general election to allow the testing of the idea of a federation of the Kingdoms under a council of the Isles to develop so that the Sovereign Crown can be kept in
Ulster and the President in Ireland and any change there occurs democratically. This would allow for both to then look to the Commonwealth as a potential means for reunification as Her Majesty the Queen in 2009 encouraged people to do[6]. Then Ireland and Britain could evolve constitutionally without being played by the Irish American community supplying funds for guns for the Real IRA until the next recession caused there facilitates the USA to join the Commonwealth or the next UK government invites the USA to join. Perhaps then the historical differences between Catholicism and Protestantism could be healed in time for the papal visit in 2010 and terrorism be eliminated as a justification in conflict within Christendom as part of stopping Al Queda and other forms of terrorism across the world under the rule of law and the United Nations.
James Ware
Word Count: 2,665
Bibliography
Bossy, John Christianity in the West 1400-1700 (Oxford, 1985)
Chidester, David Christianity A Global History (Penguin, 2000)
Guy, John Tudor England (Cambridge)
Forster, R. F, Modern Ireland 1600-1972 (Penguin, 1988)
Study Guide 2
Course Audio CDA5389 CD2 The reformation and its aftermath.
BBC Radio London, 3pm Christmas Day Broadcast of Her Majesty the Queen
[1] Repealed by the realpolitik acceptance of a protestant monarchy by treaty in
[2] Mentioned by Tutor in 20/04/10 tutorial and confirmed when reading John Guy “Tudor England” (1997,)
[3] Thus Poverty Overseas and a fear of the other has produced the megaphone diplomacy effect from Protestant Populations in both Britain and America with the streets of New York and Boston Nineteenth Century seeing hostility to the crown fuel
Ctd.pg.3 into a lawless underclass in poor accommodation, characterised in England and in an era pre housing benefit post ww2 of no blacks no irish in the windows of London streets.
[5] This culminated in the twentieth century with the Official Secrets Act of 1909 and 1911 following popular fear of German spies.
[6] BBC Radio London, 3pm Christmas Day Broadcast of Her Majesty the Queen
TMA02
What factors worked against mutual toleration between Catholics and Protestants between the mid sixteenth century and the end of the nineteenth century?
In answering this question first I shall look at the theological differences between the Catholics and Protestants as explained by John Bossy and John Chidester and the CD. Then I will turn to the case study of The UK and Irish Republics churches and the impact that the German reformation had on them outlined by the second course CD and the resultant economic and religious history behind the failings of the Irish Anglican Church to deliver a unified system of religion owing to historic loyalties be they to the sovereign or the Pope of the population and linguistic tolerance for the whole Island of Ireland that in the nineteenth century shifted to language and culture rather than religion. I shall then turn to the resultant establishment of linguistic revival as its counter in the nineteenth century. I will conclude with the factors be looked at as how this inspired armed resistance in 1916 which led to the split between Britain and Ireland rather than a federal union of the Isles and the whole Empire. This will draw on the course textbooks for the period in the question to answer. I will conclude with the key factors that emerge from this analysis that worked against Protestant - Catholic mutual toleration. Thankfully this time period is more tolerant thanks to interdenominational and inter faith initiatives whatever the ‘gut instincts’ of their individual adherents.
Bossy’s argument about the difference of sacraments is a more detailed than what is explained in the audio CD and covers a diverging view of the sacraments and purgatory that inspired reform. There can be viewed that there was a danger of an after effect from the crusades seeing Christian states taking it out on each other as the reformation can be seen as a war against impurities of the soul rather than and instead
W4745067 pg.2
of redemption through violence the former Advocated by Zwingli described in the course CD and developed by him and his followers following his debate in Zurich.
Turning to Britain and Ireland as the case study I note the after-effects of the Spanish armada that had at that time been endorsed by the papacy that had excommunicated Queen Elizabeth I from Rome and authorised ‘regime change’[1] the Spanish king Philip II to reclaim the kingdom of England[2] that he had been husband but not king of under the previous Queen Mary I. During that time he had supported her attempts to bring it back to Roman Catholicism indirectly and spasmodically. As a result the English population viewed Ireland and the Highlands of Scotland with suspicion for showing support to the defeated ships caught in the storms. This has historically created a centre and periphery in terms of investment and at that time the main cities were London, Edinburgh and then Bristol for the developing tea and slave trade as the basis for a merchant navy under companies at the Royal Exchange developed further by James 1st to defend and enrich the crown and the realm and aid scientific and cultural exploration.
Hence war was a factor with the failings of an integrated peace plan and pre Westphalia and the formal abolition of the Holy Roam Empire with its claims of Roman Catholic temporal superiority over the papacy a lack of international law that fully recognised individual state sovereignty regardless of the confession of the ruler
W4745067 pg.3
and any territorial or economic gains any country made as part of its conflict and conversion or coexistence in the non European world discussed in the next study
topic. This lack of a framework for dialogue and tolerance can and did create difficulties fuelled by propaganda against other states on the back of the last war as a crude warning for them not to seek retaliation. In city’s where there were diplomat and immigration populations centres produced mutual intolerance, one example of which was the Gordon or Ritualism riots in London in the nineteenth century. This created a differing procedure for them which until recently with government citizenship initiatives and any attempt to grant those working and paying taxes here an amnesty, played into the hands of the politicial far right.
Such incidents were despite and perhaps as a result of a fearful reaction to the enlightenment thinking of the eighteenth century combined with the Oxford movements attempts at reconciliation with Rome. Followers of the martyrs memorial petition in the nineteenth century mentioned By Dr Susan Mumm in CD 2 could have seen such attempts as a corruption of the Church of England from its foundation of the book of common prayer and the articles of religion and other Christian denominations opinions that English should have paramount usage and their theology of the healing of the bible in the vernacular, derived from Luther’s 95 thesis in Wurtenberg and the German Reformation.
This justification by prayer book and articles is inspired and established in Edward VI reign, restored by Elizabeth I and reaffirmed by King Charles II upon his accession to
W4745067 pg. 4
the throne after the 1660 restoration of the crown after the Cromwellian Commonwealth. This view was espoused by a fearful population against both Irish
immigration produced by the potato famine of that time and the economic turmoil that lay behind that owing to structural difficulties in the British Imperial economy[3]. From
that perspective at these times the idea of immigrants threatening their livelihood seemed a real threat.
In the mainland UK there was also Dynastic feuding owing to the lack of a coherent whole British Isles state with accurate communication between all its population centres and a universally supported church that enjoyed majority support in all its home island territories as a result of the factors analysed above. This occurred due to a lack of technology of later in the modern age and the fact picked up on in the study guide chronology that there were diverging reformations in England and Scotland. Calvinism took a differing form in the Scottish Reformation owing to differing trade links on Scotlands East Coast and a separate vernacular document in the Scots tongue and then Knox’s psalter which was more stridently distinct from any notion of being a ‘reformed and catholic’ church that it had taken in England. Another reason was the feuding within the House of Stuart under the mother of James 1st Queen Mary between these Calvinist Presbyterians and the Roman Catholic and English supporting
W4745067 pg. 5
aristocracy. This resulted in church schisms and protestant plantations as those to whom the compromise of James VI (I of England) regency saw dissent from their
covenant to one another and their perceptions of kirk. When James I and VI sought to repair this in his reign from London by seeking to introduce the prayer book and articles of religion this caused
further alienation but did produce the Episcopalian church, loyal to Canterbury and King that was distinct from the Scottish states established church.
Thus these difficulties saw some settled elsewhere with some support from Elizabeth I at the end of her reign as the Cecil’s began to negotiate the succession to the monarch. The major example was in Ulster to keep down catholic lords in Ireland on land confiscated from them in battle by Elizabeth’s forces, antagonising Catholic Protestant relations and creating Londonderry in need of defence by William of Orange in a later reign. All of this was there as the lack of a coherent form of governance equal to England was still occurring despite the 1540 upgrading from Overlord of Ireland to King in Henry VIII’s title. The English overlordship of Ireland was an occurance from the reign of Henry II claiming title over the Earl of Pembroke’s lands in Ireland which he had gained after marrying the High Kings Daughter after he restored him to his throne following an invite to do so to Henry II from the Pope.
Hence the notion of fusion of countries was fraught with difficulty and occured after conquest usually in europe without the use of referenda and international law prior to
W4745067 pg. 6
the EU and the only way that was done in the more distant past was one sided and anti semitic (Austrian anschluss the proving ground of Goebell’s nice and nasty approach
portraying the allegedly nice austrian Hitler against the allegedly nasty thieving Jews, later compounded by Goebells in the war saying that they were rats and vermin). Had
Hitler had the electoral reform and referenda commission in his day and played by the rules of the League of Nations, would the Jews not have perished in the death camps
of Auschwitz and Birkenau. Not if you read the writings of the man and Mein Kampf in which he places his woes at their behest. So how did the genocidal maniac slip through in Germany? Note pictures in Chidester and the despair of not being unified by temporal rulers, the idea of a new Charlemagne idealised warfare and the UK as a
potential ally with visits by Chamberlain bolstering support for the Nazi regime in the 1930s in Hitler’s mind and the political ambitions of Churchill who is said to asked Hitler about the plight of the Jews when he was in Germany.
Hence under economic analysis it can be argued that to win an empire the Union of crowns in an era prior to proper fiscal regulation, fiscal borrowing against land in England and Ireland occurred without reference to its long term sustainability as such concepts hadn’t been developed scientifically on the basis of the plantations, prior to attempts at UK wide parliamentary regulation of this practice after the 1829 Emancipation of Catholics Act which sought to reduce the antagonisms and resentments of previous legislation.
There was also a lack of an Anglican prayer book for the Gaels as conformity was in Language and the Irish and Scots dialects were being separated by differing
W4745067 pg. 7
codification in writing as oral culture was codified. Further other Protestant faith communities under the then English speaking Irish Parliament in Dublin vetoed this
and enforced it harshly in places by the nonconformists who again differed in religion and believed in no surrender to popery for fear of death in some very vocal and visceral speeches to ‘wake the population up to the message of grace and salvation of
‘Jesus Christ’ (See Paisley account of History in study guide two) and no right of return to their areas of Scotland and England having worked themselves out of
poverty. Those horrified by that or during the 1801-1921 fusion of Parliaments sought to build a common linguistic revival to build up through civil society bilingualism across all churches and allow from an Anglican perspective more clergy who could
minister to the whole population and convert through co-existence. How this was viewed and commented on in mainland Britain at the time is of note with the ideals of the pre-eminence of the English language and the empire conquering the whole world created fear that they couldn’t support this and defend and sustain the entire empire.
This Differs from the welsh common prayer book movement granted royal patronage under Elizabeth 1st and saw itself as part of the church of England but linguistically distinct. It was self financing by the welsh commerce and print community within the city (Study Guide 2) and who wanted equality with England within the union under a common crown (why Plaid Cymru has historically in the twentieth century not been a specifically pro independence party as it united nonconformists and Anglicans horrified with war of both conflicts and wanting to rebuild the UK as a federation of
W4745067 pg.8
Kingdoms until the EU and SNP policy developments of Independence in Europe replaced Independence in the Commonwealth in their rhetoric at election time). [4]
Hence a resultant fear of persecution and a lack of a mercantile and industrial base on the island of Ireland led to an agriculture based economy that was backward compared with England and couldn’t cope in the 1840s with washout harvests leading to starvation and poverty or support in full the required level of evangelism and clergy
training for documents and services in Irish and Gaelic. This can be seen as a consequence of the great game of nations against the predominantly Roman Catholic French and Spanish being won on the back of slavery. This was where companies based on diverging faith communities with destinations to differing American colonies pre 1787 funded conquest elsewhere as the UK gained an empire but lacked a way to govern it without population movements under a rule of law at the centre, unlike America after the revolutionary wars.
However as naval technology and communications improved the concept of the rule of law. This was then enforced by the victorious and better managed British navy from Trafalgar. It was then used to abolish slavery and curtail piracy on the high seas of the Atlantic while the Americans still had the former, In turn this then enabled Queen Victoria to end slavery there as well by backing Abraham Lincoln over the South as UK citizens regardless of faith, denomination or branch fought to stop slavery, inspired by the fact that they were no longer doing it themselves and
W4745067 pg.9
campaigns in the press and supplications to Parliament. However there were those who fought to keep slavery as well and this divide in the aristocracy saw some
resistance to home rule as well and partly justified paranoia against the other be it Marxism, socialism, Germans or Russians.[5]
Ultimately the issues in diverging churches and across these isles that fuelled these divisions were incomplete unity and historic divisions of country because there are distinct nations on these islands and there was a conflicting doctrines of supremacy and lineage stemming from the desire of Henry VIII to have a son to stop the
bloodshed of civil war of the preceding century. It was also to found the idea of the empire distinct from Rome to defend the Catholic faith and unify the Island without the excesses of Edward 1st as his sister was Queen of Scotland. Hence with the benefit of hindsight there were failures of structures of law and governance based on mutual respect and harmony within the country owing to real and perceived threats from overseas. How the countries of the UK and the Irish Republic emerged is beyond the scope of this essay however the inability to stop the revolt of 1916 because it was a right to rebel and justified as Ireland was in the view of nineteenth century Sinn Fein at that time as a seperate country distinct from the papal recognition of the British Crown and hidden from the mainland UK population during the troubles is still used as false justification by the Real IRA.
W4745067 pg. 10
Hence in my view there is a need for Alliance for Democracy as a political party at this general election to allow the testing of the idea of a federation of the Kingdoms under a council of the Isles to develop so that the Sovereign Crown can be kept in
Ulster and the President in Ireland and any change there occurs democratically. This would allow for both to then look to the Commonwealth as a potential means for reunification as Her Majesty the Queen in 2009 encouraged people to do[6]. Then Ireland and Britain could evolve constitutionally without being played by the Irish American community supplying funds for guns for the Real IRA until the next recession caused there facilitates the USA to join the Commonwealth or the next UK government invites the USA to join. Perhaps then the historical differences between Catholicism and Protestantism could be healed in time for the papal visit in 2010 and terrorism be eliminated as a justification in conflict within Christendom as part of stopping Al Queda and other forms of terrorism across the world under the rule of law and the United Nations.
James Ware
Word Count: 2,665
Bibliography
Bossy, John Christianity in the West 1400-1700 (Oxford, 1985)
Chidester, David Christianity A Global History (Penguin, 2000)
Guy, John Tudor England (Cambridge)
Forster, R. F, Modern Ireland 1600-1972 (Penguin, 1988)
Study Guide 2
Course Audio CDA5389 CD2 The reformation and its aftermath.
BBC Radio London, 3pm Christmas Day Broadcast of Her Majesty the Queen
[1] Repealed by the realpolitik acceptance of a protestant monarchy by treaty in
[2] Mentioned by Tutor in 20/04/10 tutorial and confirmed when reading John Guy “Tudor England” (1997,)
[3] Thus Poverty Overseas and a fear of the other has produced the megaphone diplomacy effect from Protestant Populations in both Britain and America with the streets of New York and Boston Nineteenth Century seeing hostility to the crown fuel
Ctd.pg.3 into a lawless underclass in poor accommodation, characterised in England and in an era pre housing benefit post ww2 of no blacks no irish in the windows of London streets.
[5] This culminated in the twentieth century with the Official Secrets Act of 1909 and 1911 following popular fear of German spies.
[6] BBC Radio London, 3pm Christmas Day Broadcast of Her Majesty the Queen
revision time, heres essay 1
W4745067
AA307 TMA01
To what extent can the crusades be understood as a Christian war on Islam
Due 16/03/10
From the time of the Byzantine Empire when Islam conquered one third of what was then its empire in Syria and nearby in a matter of years Christians have been aware of Islam and its effects on them and the whole world. However why it took a further 3-4 centuries before western Christendom launched the First Crusade with Jerusalem under control of the Muslims since 638AD is of note as it may show that conflict is actually a historical matter of last resort for Christendom. Further whether the era of the Crusades was a war about faith, territory or the breakdown of coexistence and war crimes as justification for purification by conflict in a papal sermon and edict at Clermont is also of note in answering this question. To do so I will attempt to adopt the Averil Cameron methodology in DVD 1 of noting political change and geography of empires as much as the Cambridge academic in Ch.2 of the DVD. My preliminary reaction was to say that delay was due to an equilibrium in the Holy Land where peaceful coexistence of different faiths had been occurring since the time of Christ with an example given of Mumra in Ch1 of DVD 1 by Professor David Chidester, something which is being striven for in the current time as a counter to the writings of Saib Qutb mentioned in Ch2 of DVD 2 (track 16), which were in many ways the inspiration for the pan islamist jihadism of Osama Bin Laden (Ch2 DVD 2 track 18).
In Fletcher (reading 7, study guide 1) this is developed further by an explanation that following the partition of the Roman Empire into East and West the East “…was more urbanized, comprising some of the Great Cities of Antiquity” such as Antioch and Constantinople and was thus more Christianised than the Germanic successor Kingdoms in the territory of the former Western Roman Empire prior to the work of Saint Augustine in France / Gaul prior to his coming to England on his second missionary period. Thus coexistence occurred prior to the Crusades and even during it, laying down the basis for much of what post Westphalia is known of as International Law and it can be seen that the crusades was about setting the balance of the Holy Land in favour of Christians and against the ‘grievances’ set out in Pope Urban’s speech at Clermont.
W4745067 TMA01 pg. 2
Turning to Appendix 1 of this essay (retyped from the Study Guide) a summarise chronology of the Crusades is given. First it is worth noting that the expansion of the original Arabian Muslim caliph under Muhammad from its beginnings in Medina and then under the eleven Immans shows success in Battle and was an inspiration for Islamic rulers from Saladin to Saddam Hussein[1] and even Osama Bin Ladens' ideas on One world (Islamic) governance by unity in a common faith umma to unite the world under a wahibbi caliphate[2]. Thus a counter argument to the paragraph above is that there is conflict inherent in Islam’s relations with the west and that the UK is in many ways a state that has because of diverging Christian traditions discussed in Study Guide Two learnt to adapt and allow those that obeys its laws to settle here while outside of the states on the Eastern Mediterranean and East Asian former Colonies of Europe Islam has sought to be the dominant religion[3]. However Fletcher also notes that in Arab Lands Jewish and Christian communities existed in Muhammad’s Time, with one Orthodox Christian community even giving Muhammad refuge from a storm; hence the Muslim Scripture the Koran teaches that the people of the book should be respected and the development of the concept of the dhimmy. Thus Islam and Christianity don’t have to be at war in many pacifist and nonconformist viewpoints.
However this does not negate from the ‘fact’ that they started it according to the papal edict. Chidester says that while the Eastern Church at the time of crusades saw Jerusalem as one of the patriarchates with holy sites and churches, the western church saw it as a key place of pilgrimage. Both were initially given freedom by the Muslim authorities prior to Clermont's edict but en route and within the Levant persecution occurred as taxes were levied and pilgrims either killed or attacked. The thought of this occurring to peace loving monks and nuns rallied support to Pope Urban’s call for a counter jihad or crusade so that there is “…salvation by a sustained act of violence”
W4745067 TMA 01 pg.3
(reading 8 study Guide 1[4]) to restore the church of the Holy Sepulchre and liberate Jerusalem. (1149 after 15/07/1099 respectively).
Further readings from the Study Guide highlight the difficulties faced by the Church and how Christianity was at war with and on Islam. Of particular note in supporting the assertion that Urban II had a war on Islam are the two versions of the sermon. The first by Robert of Rheim's shows ethno-centricism appealing “to the race of Franks…chosen and beloved by God.” Before listing the grievances and cruel tortures that pilgrims had suffered and that therefore “...incite your minds to manly achievements on the battlefield” to liberate them by declaring peace with one another first at home. Hence the crusades are not just a war on Islam but an attempt to unify control of church and state that goes back to the time of Constantine and the Council of Nicea as such things and unity “…is the will of God” (Reading 9a, pg. 129 Study Guide) and “..Be undertaken now and to be finished in victory.” (Reading 9b, pg 131 Study Guide 1).
Yet both Christianity and Islam underwent political change in and because of the Crusades. Islam that had previously been practised by Arab Nomads developed urbanisation and pilgrimage to Jerusalem after Mecca with the Dome of The Rock (Al Aqsa Mosque) being constructed on the Temple Mount. Western Christianity countered with the foundation of Christian orders and instituted taxation to pay for the liberation of Jerusalem and its defence for Christian pilgrims (the grievance given at Clermont included the allowance of attacks on Pilgrims by the Muslim authorities described above), with only the Iberian kingdoms granted exemptions as they were trying to hold the line and recapture Granada from the Muslim Moors were thus seen of as a differing case where the lessons from Jerusalem and cooperation with the knowledge and learning seeing peaceful co-operation developed particularly around medicine with teachers such as Maimonides moving between Iberia and Antioch. Also Saladin when re-conquered Jerusalem left the rebuilt Church of the Sepulchre amongst others intact as Umar had done so with the original building (Reading 14, Pg175-6 Study Guide 1), which left scope for the city to be returned by treaty in 1229
W4745067 pg.4
relatively peaceably by treaty after war, setting the principles for modern international law.
Hence turning to the second part of Professor Cameron’s approach Geography; was The Crusades a Christian war on Islamic territory? While it is always dangerous to place any given territory under the microcosm of modern thinking without putting such analysis in its historical context it is true that the Levant was a territory that was under Christian Byzantine rule until conquered by Muslims who were in turn superseded by Islamist Turks. As a territory that was coastal on the Mediterranean it was easier to conquer back once ships were found from the Byzantines; albeit after the pillage of Constantinople done in protest at the gates being closed and doctrinal differences caused by the East West schism. It is why to this day Israel has a navy patrolling the Mediterranean to prevent arms smugglers and deter coastal piracy and why the Gaza settlements were removed to facilitate dialogue between Israel and Palestine.
To conclude I would say that there was a war by Christians to liberate the territory of Jerusalem, Antioch, Samaria, Cilicia and Jerusalem from Muslim rule after the severe provocation documented in Readings 9 after centuries of relative peace. As such the crusades were the last resort and at their end with the fall of the crusading kingdoms, a new balance whereby religious sites regardless of faith were kept sacred and respected entered the parlance of international affairs. If only the Jewish sites were also kept in the same way in Europe then perhaps the nineteenth and twentieth centuries would have been less revolutionary and violent with the benefit of hindsight. But Christendom has always historically had a bogeyman be it England’s Bishop of Rome in the reformation, Knox’s monstrous regiment of women that angered Elizabeth 1st or any political grouping that all churches sounded out as it developed (see Chidester). As such the crusades were a war on extreme Islam and to be charitable, the warlords who let the attacks on pilgrims occur that even Saladin found offensive in his reforms that led to the rallying of his side and the crusaders eventual defeat, similar to Papal attempt’s after the event to reign in the peoples crusade documented in Reading 10.
W4745067 pg.5
Word count 1,510
Bibliography
Religion in History, Conflict, Conversion and Coexistence
Edited by John Wolffe
(2008, Manchester University Press)
Study Guide 1: Introducing Religious History: From the Romans to the crusades
CD AA307 01
Chidester, “Christianity: A Global History” (Penguin, 2000)
Appendix 1
Chronology of the Crusades (taken from Study guide 1)
C570-632 Muhammad
638 Jerusalem captured under Caliph Omar
1054 Schism between Eastern and western churches
1071 Seljuq defeat of Byzantines at Battle of Manzikert
1095 (27 November) Pope Urban II calls for crusade at council of Clermont (Ferrand)
1096-1102 First Crusade
1098 Crusaders conquer Antioch and Edessa
1099 (15 July) Jerusalem falls to Crusaders
1105 ‘Ali Ibn Tahir al Sulami produces Kitah al Jihad
1120 Foundation of Order of Knights Templar
1144 Edessa falls to Muslims
1147-9 Second Crusade
1149 New Church of the Holy Sepulchre consecrated
1174-87 Rise of Saladin
1187 (4 July) Battle of Hattin (2 October) Jerusalem falls to Saladin
1189-92 Third Crusade
1191 Richard 1 of England and Philip II of France capture Acre.
1199 Taxation of church instituted to support crusading
1202-4 Fourth Crusade
1204 Crusaders sack Constantinople
1209-29 Albiegensian Crusade against Cathars in France
1217-29 Fifth Crusade
1229 Treaty restores Jerusalem to Christians
1239-40 sixth Crusade in aid of Constantinople
1244 Jerusalem recaptured by Muslims
1248-54 Seventh crusade, led by St Louis IX of France
1265-71 Mamluks conquer Frankish possessions in Palestine
1291 (18 May) fall of Acre
1453 Constantinople falls to the Ottoman Turks
1492 Fall of Granada to the Spanish ends Muslim rule in Spain
1520-66 Reign of Suleiman the Magnificent sees Ottoman Rule at its zenith
1571 Turks defeated at Battle of Lepanto
1588 Spanish Armada defeated by English
1798 Fall of Malta to Napoleon ends territorial rule by crusading military orders.
1853-6 Crimean War
1914-18 First World War
International mandate of Palestine and Israel until 1948 partition by conflict.
[1] Figure 1, pg 63, Wollfe J (Ed) Religion in History, Conflict, conversion, coexistence 1980s propaganda picture portraying Saddam as the second Saladin at time of Iran-Iraq war.
[2]regrettably disseminated every time his forces pull off a terrorist spectacular until he's captured tried and incarcerated and left to die a natural death if not executed (either way I’d give him a Christian burial as Only Christ is the resurrection the truth and the life).
[3] The glib one line comment, how many bibles are allowed in Mecca, Medina and Mogul can be seen to ring true especially.
[4] France, John ‘Patronage and the Appeal of the first crusade.’ Taken from Phillips (Ed) (1997) the first crusade: Origins and Impact, Manchester, Manchester University Press pgs 5-20.
AA307 TMA01
To what extent can the crusades be understood as a Christian war on Islam
Due 16/03/10
From the time of the Byzantine Empire when Islam conquered one third of what was then its empire in Syria and nearby in a matter of years Christians have been aware of Islam and its effects on them and the whole world. However why it took a further 3-4 centuries before western Christendom launched the First Crusade with Jerusalem under control of the Muslims since 638AD is of note as it may show that conflict is actually a historical matter of last resort for Christendom. Further whether the era of the Crusades was a war about faith, territory or the breakdown of coexistence and war crimes as justification for purification by conflict in a papal sermon and edict at Clermont is also of note in answering this question. To do so I will attempt to adopt the Averil Cameron methodology in DVD 1 of noting political change and geography of empires as much as the Cambridge academic in Ch.2 of the DVD. My preliminary reaction was to say that delay was due to an equilibrium in the Holy Land where peaceful coexistence of different faiths had been occurring since the time of Christ with an example given of Mumra in Ch1 of DVD 1 by Professor David Chidester, something which is being striven for in the current time as a counter to the writings of Saib Qutb mentioned in Ch2 of DVD 2 (track 16), which were in many ways the inspiration for the pan islamist jihadism of Osama Bin Laden (Ch2 DVD 2 track 18).
In Fletcher (reading 7, study guide 1) this is developed further by an explanation that following the partition of the Roman Empire into East and West the East “…was more urbanized, comprising some of the Great Cities of Antiquity” such as Antioch and Constantinople and was thus more Christianised than the Germanic successor Kingdoms in the territory of the former Western Roman Empire prior to the work of Saint Augustine in France / Gaul prior to his coming to England on his second missionary period. Thus coexistence occurred prior to the Crusades and even during it, laying down the basis for much of what post Westphalia is known of as International Law and it can be seen that the crusades was about setting the balance of the Holy Land in favour of Christians and against the ‘grievances’ set out in Pope Urban’s speech at Clermont.
W4745067 TMA01 pg. 2
Turning to Appendix 1 of this essay (retyped from the Study Guide) a summarise chronology of the Crusades is given. First it is worth noting that the expansion of the original Arabian Muslim caliph under Muhammad from its beginnings in Medina and then under the eleven Immans shows success in Battle and was an inspiration for Islamic rulers from Saladin to Saddam Hussein[1] and even Osama Bin Ladens' ideas on One world (Islamic) governance by unity in a common faith umma to unite the world under a wahibbi caliphate[2]. Thus a counter argument to the paragraph above is that there is conflict inherent in Islam’s relations with the west and that the UK is in many ways a state that has because of diverging Christian traditions discussed in Study Guide Two learnt to adapt and allow those that obeys its laws to settle here while outside of the states on the Eastern Mediterranean and East Asian former Colonies of Europe Islam has sought to be the dominant religion[3]. However Fletcher also notes that in Arab Lands Jewish and Christian communities existed in Muhammad’s Time, with one Orthodox Christian community even giving Muhammad refuge from a storm; hence the Muslim Scripture the Koran teaches that the people of the book should be respected and the development of the concept of the dhimmy. Thus Islam and Christianity don’t have to be at war in many pacifist and nonconformist viewpoints.
However this does not negate from the ‘fact’ that they started it according to the papal edict. Chidester says that while the Eastern Church at the time of crusades saw Jerusalem as one of the patriarchates with holy sites and churches, the western church saw it as a key place of pilgrimage. Both were initially given freedom by the Muslim authorities prior to Clermont's edict but en route and within the Levant persecution occurred as taxes were levied and pilgrims either killed or attacked. The thought of this occurring to peace loving monks and nuns rallied support to Pope Urban’s call for a counter jihad or crusade so that there is “…salvation by a sustained act of violence”
W4745067 TMA 01 pg.3
(reading 8 study Guide 1[4]) to restore the church of the Holy Sepulchre and liberate Jerusalem. (1149 after 15/07/1099 respectively).
Further readings from the Study Guide highlight the difficulties faced by the Church and how Christianity was at war with and on Islam. Of particular note in supporting the assertion that Urban II had a war on Islam are the two versions of the sermon. The first by Robert of Rheim's shows ethno-centricism appealing “to the race of Franks…chosen and beloved by God.” Before listing the grievances and cruel tortures that pilgrims had suffered and that therefore “...incite your minds to manly achievements on the battlefield” to liberate them by declaring peace with one another first at home. Hence the crusades are not just a war on Islam but an attempt to unify control of church and state that goes back to the time of Constantine and the Council of Nicea as such things and unity “…is the will of God” (Reading 9a, pg. 129 Study Guide) and “..Be undertaken now and to be finished in victory.” (Reading 9b, pg 131 Study Guide 1).
Yet both Christianity and Islam underwent political change in and because of the Crusades. Islam that had previously been practised by Arab Nomads developed urbanisation and pilgrimage to Jerusalem after Mecca with the Dome of The Rock (Al Aqsa Mosque) being constructed on the Temple Mount. Western Christianity countered with the foundation of Christian orders and instituted taxation to pay for the liberation of Jerusalem and its defence for Christian pilgrims (the grievance given at Clermont included the allowance of attacks on Pilgrims by the Muslim authorities described above), with only the Iberian kingdoms granted exemptions as they were trying to hold the line and recapture Granada from the Muslim Moors were thus seen of as a differing case where the lessons from Jerusalem and cooperation with the knowledge and learning seeing peaceful co-operation developed particularly around medicine with teachers such as Maimonides moving between Iberia and Antioch. Also Saladin when re-conquered Jerusalem left the rebuilt Church of the Sepulchre amongst others intact as Umar had done so with the original building (Reading 14, Pg175-6 Study Guide 1), which left scope for the city to be returned by treaty in 1229
W4745067 pg.4
relatively peaceably by treaty after war, setting the principles for modern international law.
Hence turning to the second part of Professor Cameron’s approach Geography; was The Crusades a Christian war on Islamic territory? While it is always dangerous to place any given territory under the microcosm of modern thinking without putting such analysis in its historical context it is true that the Levant was a territory that was under Christian Byzantine rule until conquered by Muslims who were in turn superseded by Islamist Turks. As a territory that was coastal on the Mediterranean it was easier to conquer back once ships were found from the Byzantines; albeit after the pillage of Constantinople done in protest at the gates being closed and doctrinal differences caused by the East West schism. It is why to this day Israel has a navy patrolling the Mediterranean to prevent arms smugglers and deter coastal piracy and why the Gaza settlements were removed to facilitate dialogue between Israel and Palestine.
To conclude I would say that there was a war by Christians to liberate the territory of Jerusalem, Antioch, Samaria, Cilicia and Jerusalem from Muslim rule after the severe provocation documented in Readings 9 after centuries of relative peace. As such the crusades were the last resort and at their end with the fall of the crusading kingdoms, a new balance whereby religious sites regardless of faith were kept sacred and respected entered the parlance of international affairs. If only the Jewish sites were also kept in the same way in Europe then perhaps the nineteenth and twentieth centuries would have been less revolutionary and violent with the benefit of hindsight. But Christendom has always historically had a bogeyman be it England’s Bishop of Rome in the reformation, Knox’s monstrous regiment of women that angered Elizabeth 1st or any political grouping that all churches sounded out as it developed (see Chidester). As such the crusades were a war on extreme Islam and to be charitable, the warlords who let the attacks on pilgrims occur that even Saladin found offensive in his reforms that led to the rallying of his side and the crusaders eventual defeat, similar to Papal attempt’s after the event to reign in the peoples crusade documented in Reading 10.
W4745067 pg.5
Word count 1,510
Bibliography
Religion in History, Conflict, Conversion and Coexistence
Edited by John Wolffe
(2008, Manchester University Press)
Study Guide 1: Introducing Religious History: From the Romans to the crusades
CD AA307 01
Chidester, “Christianity: A Global History” (Penguin, 2000)
Appendix 1
Chronology of the Crusades (taken from Study guide 1)
C570-632 Muhammad
638 Jerusalem captured under Caliph Omar
1054 Schism between Eastern and western churches
1071 Seljuq defeat of Byzantines at Battle of Manzikert
1095 (27 November) Pope Urban II calls for crusade at council of Clermont (Ferrand)
1096-1102 First Crusade
1098 Crusaders conquer Antioch and Edessa
1099 (15 July) Jerusalem falls to Crusaders
1105 ‘Ali Ibn Tahir al Sulami produces Kitah al Jihad
1120 Foundation of Order of Knights Templar
1144 Edessa falls to Muslims
1147-9 Second Crusade
1149 New Church of the Holy Sepulchre consecrated
1174-87 Rise of Saladin
1187 (4 July) Battle of Hattin (2 October) Jerusalem falls to Saladin
1189-92 Third Crusade
1191 Richard 1 of England and Philip II of France capture Acre.
1199 Taxation of church instituted to support crusading
1202-4 Fourth Crusade
1204 Crusaders sack Constantinople
1209-29 Albiegensian Crusade against Cathars in France
1217-29 Fifth Crusade
1229 Treaty restores Jerusalem to Christians
1239-40 sixth Crusade in aid of Constantinople
1244 Jerusalem recaptured by Muslims
1248-54 Seventh crusade, led by St Louis IX of France
1265-71 Mamluks conquer Frankish possessions in Palestine
1291 (18 May) fall of Acre
1453 Constantinople falls to the Ottoman Turks
1492 Fall of Granada to the Spanish ends Muslim rule in Spain
1520-66 Reign of Suleiman the Magnificent sees Ottoman Rule at its zenith
1571 Turks defeated at Battle of Lepanto
1588 Spanish Armada defeated by English
1798 Fall of Malta to Napoleon ends territorial rule by crusading military orders.
1853-6 Crimean War
1914-18 First World War
International mandate of Palestine and Israel until 1948 partition by conflict.
[1] Figure 1, pg 63, Wollfe J (Ed) Religion in History, Conflict, conversion, coexistence 1980s propaganda picture portraying Saddam as the second Saladin at time of Iran-Iraq war.
[2]regrettably disseminated every time his forces pull off a terrorist spectacular until he's captured tried and incarcerated and left to die a natural death if not executed (either way I’d give him a Christian burial as Only Christ is the resurrection the truth and the life).
[3] The glib one line comment, how many bibles are allowed in Mecca, Medina and Mogul can be seen to ring true especially.
[4] France, John ‘Patronage and the Appeal of the first crusade.’ Taken from Phillips (Ed) (1997) the first crusade: Origins and Impact, Manchester, Manchester University Press pgs 5-20.
Wednesday, 1 September 2010
Final essay. Quote from it if you're struggling with the deadline.
W4745067 pg.1
TMA05
How have postwar relations between Christians and Jews been affected by the Holocaust.
In answering this question on the topic of the Shoah I shall seek to explain how what is referred to as the definitive crime of human history in which the deaths of over six million Jews and others deemed undesirable by the Nazi state occurred and how this affected Jewish-Christian relations. This will be done briefly with reference to the foundation of Christian-Jewish interfaith organisations that have since 1942 occurred in other states. I shall then turn to certain themes of interfaith co-operation such as scriptural archaeology (the Dead sea and red sea scrolls) and how that impacted on English medium religious studies and other academic disciplines literature towards and against the spirit of Christian-Jewish dialogue, with an opinion as to its possible motivations and a look at the structure of the UK state at that time. I shall then turn to the Middle East peace process with reference to the course CD to offer hope for the future with reference to personal experience of going on a middle east interfaith trip in 2005. I shall conclude with an outline of how a middle east peace process could look that resolves Israeli West Bank settlements and the status of Jerusalem, Bethlehem and Ramallah under international law and its resulting impact on Judeau-Christian relations “across the world[1]” such that never again remains the reality as well as the ideals. As such it will be explanative, thematic, historical and then perscriptive.
1) What and when was the Shoah
The Shoah or Holocaust was the systematic execution of the Jewish and other minority populations within Germany and her annexed, AnschluBed and conquered territories, ordered by the Nazi party hierarchy after a briefing in Czechoslovakia in 1941 and carried out by the German armed forces, specifically the SS (though aided by others) after the disbandment of the SA under whose auspices the persecution had begun when the Nazis were democratically elected the Government of Germany in January 1933[2]. It was inspired by the Nazi ideology[3] that the Germans were an Aryan race and that others were untermenchen or sub human and needed to be exterminated to create lebensraum for the Aryans to expand. It was thus highly racist and based on
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the divine right of one race or personal charisma of one man (Hitler) to rule the world. Hitlers misguided ideologies were in part based on erroneously seeing the British Empire as was as a model to emulate as they had defeated the Kaiser (in whose service he had himself been gassed), the old adage if you can’t beat ‘em join ‘em.
However this was itself based on an error as the UK and its empire had by then evolved towards a Commonwealth and had begun to accept the principle of self determination for its dominions and territories. Also as discussed in study Guides 1 and 2 of AA307 the UK was not homogeneously one church or even one faith and had as part of the Restoration of the monarchy in 1660[4] accepted freedom of religion and the rights of a Jewish (or for that matter any other faith, though not initially Roman Catholic till the 1829 Emancipation Act owing to the Scottish and Irish situation as was perceived in England and encouraged by the popular press) minority to practice their religion so long as they obeyed the laws of the Westminster Parliament (and any bodies so created by statute or Royal perogative such as County and Parish / District councils and status now settled by constitutional referenda since 1997 after the 1975 precedence). A possible counter argument for the delay in dealing with this was fear over the 1936 constitutional crisis to the Monarchy owing to the British Royal succession and its impact on what was then the key tenets of religious opinion for leaders (at least in public and especially after the reign of Edward VII) namely one wife for life. However as church and state remain more seperate in the west it is possible for this not to be the more exact rule as faith communities have shifted more to raising the next generation and building a better world rather than judging the present one as some of the practices of those that do such as honour killings and stoning for adultery are barbaric and go against international law.
2) The UKs response in 1942, the USA following suit.
Yet the Nazis were different. After events such as Crystallnacht in 1938, wearing the Yellow star of David and registration of property and confiscation and business avoidance prior to the start of conflict in September 1939 in Germany, the UK state started receiving more refugees talking about the state of the persecution. However
W4745067 pg.3
with death camps and ghettoisation of occupied territories such as Czech and Polish lands occurring after the Second world war begun, the post war excuse for the delay was that information did not reach the UK till at least 1941 (though that does beg the question how effective the interrogation of Rudolf Hess in the Tower of London to name one case study or the SOE in its first years actually were). Study Guide 5’s Chronology in part disputes that.
The 1942 response was then initially interfaith and religious in the following year. The Roman Catholic, Church of England, Church of Scotland, United Synagogue and Reform Synagogue leaders formed a joint ctte or council of Christians and Jews to speak out about the evils of Nazi persecution and seek alternative remedies to the situation and to prevent the continuation of it. Similar initiatives followed in the other countries allied against the Nazis and after the war an international committee to co-ordinate them was founded. Thus out of darkness a force for light and peace was created (albeit one at times apparently biased towards the foundation of a unified Israel including the Palestinian 1948-67 territories until recent peace initiatives discussed below). Hence when the death camps were liberated Allied Commander General Dwight D Eisenhower (and in the 1950s US President) said something like “take pictures take movie reels take statements, take the whole damn lot, because some day some dumb bastard is gonna deny the whole evil thing took place.” Thus Christian Jewish relations were in 1945 based on the mutually humanitarian reaction that nothing such as the Holocaust should ever happen again and that a specifically Jewish homeland would be the guarantor of the future for the Israeli people. Such noble sentiments (acting on many peoples vision and prophecy) required a language and form of communication to overcome mutual hostility and negative reactions and that impacts on many spheres of society and that is discussed later on.
3) The Foundation of the modern Israeli state
Yet building on the British Governments Balfour declaration that on the Levant there should be a Jewish state became USA mantra and for Stalin a matter of realpolitik as it was a way of reducing the number of opponents he had to kill or send to Siberia, by appearing more humane and allowing them to emmigrate. The declaration of the Israeli states foundation after the surrender of the British Mandate owed to overstretch
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and a realisation that to allow safe access for pilgrims under the framework of international law at that time a continued imperial Christian force may have been counterproductive to any achievements under the preceding mandate in terms of shrines constructed by all the churches in the world.
4) The desire for commonality and dialogue, Dead Sea Scrolls
Hence building on the work of the British mandate in archeaologlical co-operation and the building of shrines in the mandated territories, exploration of caves around Qumran in the West Bank took place from 1946 onwards yielding scrolls and fragments of text that have been collected and published[5]. This helped to create a framework for that state to build on that was interdisciplinary and allowed for both scholastic exemption from conflict for the religious classes (many of whom lived in the 1948-67 territories that needed defending)[6] and the emergence of secular Jews who lived in Israel but didn’t practice their faith as such, whose doubts may have been generated while serving in that states military in the occupied territories. This is in turn aided engagement with the Holy Land by historically newer Christian Churches in projects such as the excavation of ‘Peters Boat’ at the Dead Sea or the 1970-80s discovery of the Red Sea Scrolls near the Sinai peninsula as previous writings on common textual backgrounds based on the Dead Sea Scrolls and previous post Renaissance and Crusades Scholarship such as Drane[7] did not fully explain the difference of interpretation of the common ( Torah. and Talmud or Old Testament) text context for the two religions and how differing Christian Denominations or religious sects of Judaism interpreted the common text or had a different translation.[8]
Taking a historigraphical perspective on this in the English speaking world one possible observation that the desire for a modern translation of the bible produced two translations after the 1960s, the Good News and the New International Version as well as an update to the English version of the Vulgate the Jerusalem Bible more
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recently based on changes to the vernacular across the world. This stemmed from concerns that the Authorised Bible (King James) translation was not so readily comprehended by the population at that time and the desire for Christian unity following Vatican II and similar Christian Jewish initiatives by the Vatican.
5) Impacts on Sociology and other ‘new disciplines’ taken as cures from the ills portrayed in fiction.
Such interfaith cooperation has generated two new academic disciplines in the post war world. The first is sociology or the science of society and the psychological / psychiatric sectors, created to regulate (for good and for ill) the costs, direction and healing of psychiatry by empirical data and will of the state rather than a general view of society or medieval codes and thinkers such as Moses Maimonides or one mans ideology such as Freud or Jung. This reflects the reality of each states professional bodies for each kind of sector and the emergence of social workers as day to day matters were no longer put in the care of psychiatrists and psychologists and this new sector needs a guidance for its staff that fits in with it, hence the erroneous nature of this jurisdiction that it has to be humanistic in order to protect Roman Catholics working in it for going against the teachings of the Vatican on matters such as Birth control or abortion when the medical sector works according to the Church of England. Yet owing to the facts discussed in Study Guide 2 of other denominations within the UK this is further constrained as these Christian groups have impacts on the scope of the state and how it functions practically, with theologies such that they are the true Israelites not reflecting the facts on the ground on the Holy Land prior to the instigation of the UN led Quartet.
Thus to reconcile this and to take in knowledge of the UK philosophy became a key support to theology and in the development of the rebuilding of the monarchy since 1992-7 inline with the heir to the thrones wish that the monarchy become a ‘defender of faith’ rather than just defending the faith (FD, granted to Henry VIII for his scholasticism prior to his seeking a divorce / marriage annulment). Hence the second subject is Philosophy for working out ways of engendering democracy and the counter ideology or non ideology that defeated communism in part in the name of Judeau Christian religious thought. It also acts as a moral code for those to whom
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religion had excluded them as well as discussed by Phillips in her books. This may have been a way of including them so that they didn’t feel radicalised from the political process if mainstream churches sought to exclude them (Study Guide 4 pgs.50-52). Thus it can be seen as a family including the whole of society even if its figurehead was head of certain values fixed to the church. This compassion could be seen as the states soft power against the church and also the church adapting to changing societal norms when rhetoric such as ‘kill as many Germans as you can’ provoked the slaughter on the Somme and is now the preserve of Al Queada (though more generally aimed at the West).
6) Impacts on Ethical and political debate
Hence this can be seen as the UK state, guided by its churches rallying against the Communism of the USSR from an economically untenable position in the 1970s the defeat of which produced the effects of the credit boom to fund space and missile research. This in turn encouraged the USSR towards Glasnost and Perestroika and aided Christians within the Warsaw Pact area be it Solidarity in Poland or the Eastern Orthodox churches in Russia and the USSR proper. Hence interfaith dialogue can work against abuse of human rights and produce greater peace talks at the end of the Cold War, a legacy of George Bush Snrs US Presidency and the mindset of never again after the Holocaust.
7) Impacts on economic and political structures of Global governance
This common language of interfaith organisations reflected a critique of the UN as better than the preceding League of Nations but still subject to restrictions on what it could do owing to bi, tri and multilateral interstate arguments such as mutually assured destruction after the Cuban Missile Crisis or the Vietnam and Korean Wars. This has since been offset by improvements in communication media such that the USA could call for the Berlin wall to come down and the whole of the Warsaw pact heard about it. The internet is the natural democratisation of media with the blogosphere relaying information about the world and trying to effect events. Christian and Jewish groups lobbied for the Gleneagles accords to reduce third world debt and lobby for change.
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This in turn has been a case of dialogue making a difference to key historical dates in the Middle East peace process as well. Study Guide 5 covers the following dates: 1948/9, End of mandate and partition of levant between Israel, Egypt and Jordan
1956, Suez
1967, Six day war
1979-81, Camp David initiatives till death of Sadat
1989, Fall of Berlin wall new initiatives for a middle east peace
1991, peace conference
1993 Election of President Clinton
1995, Second Camp David accords.
2000, Peace plan talks fail in USA, Sharons ‘peace’ walk on temple mount (followed up by new bridge from western wall to Temple Mount).
The dates I have selected from the reading 3 chronology are selective but highlight how when the Christian and Jewish world act together perception is key taking the Suez debacle, this was planned by Israel France and Britain due to the economics of the Suez canal and the politics of General Nasser. However in so doing it produced support for the (from the western perspective) far worse Muslim Brotherhood which in turn before, during and after 1967 aided Palestinian and Syrian terrorism in and against Israel, one of which groups was Hamas which sees its Jihad “as a universal one” to achieve Islam across the world[9], the stated goal of Al Queada and Osama Bin Laden, an alumnus of an Egyptian university.
8) Peace plan ideas
The Sixth of July 2005 was a day in which London was chosen for the Olympics. Within twenty Four hours later it had four rucksack bombs detonated on its public transport system by Islamic extremists. With the escalation of tensions in Gaza and the Middle East the government of Israel took the decision to withdraw all of its civilian and most of its military settlements from the Gaza Strip to facilitate dialogue between them and the Palestinians. It was in that context that I sought to go to Israel-Palestine as part of an interfaith study group / pilgrimage having sought interfaith co-
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operation in local government developments against the third runway at Heathrow and to better understand the situation to see if a practical solution to the grievances of Al Queada’s more rational rhetoric over Palestine, specifically West Bank settlements and the final status of Jerusalem, Bethlehem and Ramallah.
I learnt from this that Christian-Jewish relations can be difficult, for example when being asked your faith at the Western Wall and giving the answer Christian as the honest answer may be taken as offensive. Further taking the communion blessing in the Latin Chapel of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre because you haven’t received Roman Catholic instruction / induction and the service wasn’t in your vernacular language, compounded by then kneeling at the main shrine for too long while having a genuine religious experience to serve the Church of England and provinces that need to become a worldwide Anglican church if it wants to survive, esp if it closes the gates of Gethsemanee to its own nationals probably means you’re not wanted. A Gospel citing lesson from that is that honesty gets you so far and then into a whole lot of trouble perhaps? Yet in all candour it is in part my fault as I didn’t get to the BBC interview in the following months so all the Mr Ware coverage I have been unable to stop is my fault in the initial instance and I admit mea culpa. Hence my attempts to get interviewed again on the same subject to outline the following peace plan as an act of penance and peace generation, regardless of my opinions on the BBC:
The states of Israel, Palestine and its neighbours need to live in peace and security free from the threat of wmd, specifically nuclear weapons in Iran if said state continues to process its own fuel and issues rhetoric against Israel who in turn needs to surrender its nuclear weapons along with every other state (including the UK and USA) to the UN for the purpose of asteroid deflection.
Gaza Territory
The Government of Egypt surrenders its claim over the territory and it is reunified with the West Bank as part of a reformed and reborn Palestinian state with its own regional council and assembly that is pluralistic and democratic to reflect different voting allegiances within the territory with that of the west bank (which should itself
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have devolved councils with similar powers so that Palestine is a unified and federal state like The United States, Australia, Canada and Iraq and Indonesia).
West Bank Settlements
The states of Israel and Palestine recognise the need for a peace accord and a stable border in which both states nationals can live peacefully within the others territories under democratic constitutions, the rule of law and universal human rights. To this end the issue of settlements already there and the final border beyond the Territories of Jerusalem, Bethlehem and Ramallah is a bilateral one, subject to the ratification of final agreements by the UN and Jordan as former occupying powers when it surrenders its claims at the inauguration of the democratic Palestinian state.
Security Forces for Palestine
Noting the Israeli governments and peoples concerns that previous security forces for Palestinians have been drawn from sectional groups of Hamas and Fatah amongst others, training and provision of the new Palestinian military / police would be done by NATO in conjunction with Egypt and Jordan to aid peaceful borders in the longer term. A Common defence council for the region similar to NATO would also be convened to aid concerns of Arab states and would include Israel to build on its bilateral ties with Saudi Arabia, Egypt, Jordan, Iraq and Turkey and to act as a stabilising force against worrying Iranian Rhetoric.
Final Status for Jerusalem, Bethlehem and Ramallah, the indivisible trinity?
The status of Jerusalem with both states laying claim to it has been fraught with difficulty and has hampered previous attempts for a peace agreement. Noting the parable of the two women claiming the baby before King Solomon the wise that to divide by the sword will not happen, it is better to view Jerusalem as part of a Metropolitan area including the neighbouring cities of Bethlehem and Ramallah.
Such a city capital would include the UN as well so that those whose ‘joues diplomatique’ could end the world are faced with monotheisms abilities to save it so they wouldn’t be so stupid ever again such as the interdenominational Church of the Holy Sepulchre, the multi Jewish sect wailing and southern wall and Temple Mount
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(the last two linked by a peace bridge constructed while General Ariel Sharon was the democratically elected Prime Minister). These diplomats would be housed as tenants on disputed housing areas within the territory and the west bank with the rental income paying for the resettlement for those who wish to live within partitioned borders such as the Shas Orthodox Jews or the Hamas and Hizbollah supporting Palestinians. Security could be aided by Interpol and UN peacekeeping. A legal system common to that area and drawn from both states federal courts would apply and any municipal police force would have the right of pursuit and arrest across both states to deter suicide bombers and protect the pilgrims of whatever religion similar to UK police forces at present and to show that Christendom will not pogrom but obeys international law in accordance with the true spirit of the crusades to vanquish evil and defend the meek.
9) Conclusion
To conclude the absolute evil of the Holocaust as an act of genocide has impacted on Christian and Jewish dialogue as both sought ways to overcome the hurt and fear that such rhetoric, racism and genocide had created, on top of pogroms that had occurred previously to it. The UK has been a staunch supporter of this since 1942 and other states have followed suit which has impacted on academia and social policy within the state. Yet the enthusiasm of such co-operation in 1956 over Suez had unintended consequences, namely the creation of an opposing Islamist side. This requires careful reflection and negotiation for a sustained peace over the coming year. Hence whether combined with similar outreach to Islam a meaningful peace accord can be achieved in the next year is what could be examined.
Word Count: 3,721
Bibliography
1) Course Materials AA307
Chidester, David “Christianity A Global History (Penguin 2000)
Wolffe, John “Religion in History, Conflict, Conversion and Coexistence” (Manchester University Press, 2008) ISBN 0 7190 7107 0
2) Other OU materials
DD121/122 course materials
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AA307 Study Guides with particular reference to Study Guide two on the reformation and One regarding the crusades as well as 4 and 5.
3) Bibles
Good News Bible,
New International Bible
Revised English Bible
Book of Common Prayer
4) Books
Cohen Rev Dr A ‘Everymans Talmud’ (Dent, 1949)
Brownrigg ‘Whos Who in the New Testament’ (Dent, 1993) ISBN 0 460 86133 6
Drane, John ‘Introducing the Old Testament’ (Lion, 1987) ISBN 0754913490
Eisemann R and Wise, M ‘The dead sea scrolls uncovered’ (Element, 1994)
Hochstadt Steve “Sourcesof the Holocaust” (Palgrave Macmillan, 2004)
Isbn 0-333-96344-8 (Pbk)
Phillips, Anne “Engendering Democracy” (Phillips 1991) ISBN 0-271-00784-2
Phillips, Anne, “Democracy and Difference” (Polity, 1993) ISBN 0-7456-1096
Struk, Janina “Photographing the Holocaust” (EJS, 2004)
ISBN 186064 546 1
Vermes, Geza ‘The complete Dead Sea Scrolls in English’ (penguin 1998)
ISBN 0-14-024501-4
[1] Holtschneider, K Hannah in Chapter 8 Woolfe
[2] Study Guide 5 Chronology pg. 54
[3] See Hitler, Adolf “Mein Kampf” and speeches specifically Nuremburg.rally in the 1930s.
[4] ratifying the agreement of Oliver Cromwells Parliamentary republic
[5] Vermes, Geza ‘The complete Dead Sea Scrolls in English’ (penguin 1998)
ISBN 0-14-024501-4
[6] See Course CD 5 and study Guide 5
[7] Drane, John Introducing the Old Testament
[8] See Cohn-Sherbrook, Dan ‘Understanding Judaism’ (2000) in which he outlines that the different Jewish sects such as reform don’t agree on what to reform and that Conservative Jews, don’t agree on what to Conserve.
[9] Reading 12, pg. 119 study guide 5
TMA05
How have postwar relations between Christians and Jews been affected by the Holocaust.
In answering this question on the topic of the Shoah I shall seek to explain how what is referred to as the definitive crime of human history in which the deaths of over six million Jews and others deemed undesirable by the Nazi state occurred and how this affected Jewish-Christian relations. This will be done briefly with reference to the foundation of Christian-Jewish interfaith organisations that have since 1942 occurred in other states. I shall then turn to certain themes of interfaith co-operation such as scriptural archaeology (the Dead sea and red sea scrolls) and how that impacted on English medium religious studies and other academic disciplines literature towards and against the spirit of Christian-Jewish dialogue, with an opinion as to its possible motivations and a look at the structure of the UK state at that time. I shall then turn to the Middle East peace process with reference to the course CD to offer hope for the future with reference to personal experience of going on a middle east interfaith trip in 2005. I shall conclude with an outline of how a middle east peace process could look that resolves Israeli West Bank settlements and the status of Jerusalem, Bethlehem and Ramallah under international law and its resulting impact on Judeau-Christian relations “across the world[1]” such that never again remains the reality as well as the ideals. As such it will be explanative, thematic, historical and then perscriptive.
1) What and when was the Shoah
The Shoah or Holocaust was the systematic execution of the Jewish and other minority populations within Germany and her annexed, AnschluBed and conquered territories, ordered by the Nazi party hierarchy after a briefing in Czechoslovakia in 1941 and carried out by the German armed forces, specifically the SS (though aided by others) after the disbandment of the SA under whose auspices the persecution had begun when the Nazis were democratically elected the Government of Germany in January 1933[2]. It was inspired by the Nazi ideology[3] that the Germans were an Aryan race and that others were untermenchen or sub human and needed to be exterminated to create lebensraum for the Aryans to expand. It was thus highly racist and based on
W4745067 pg.2
the divine right of one race or personal charisma of one man (Hitler) to rule the world. Hitlers misguided ideologies were in part based on erroneously seeing the British Empire as was as a model to emulate as they had defeated the Kaiser (in whose service he had himself been gassed), the old adage if you can’t beat ‘em join ‘em.
However this was itself based on an error as the UK and its empire had by then evolved towards a Commonwealth and had begun to accept the principle of self determination for its dominions and territories. Also as discussed in study Guides 1 and 2 of AA307 the UK was not homogeneously one church or even one faith and had as part of the Restoration of the monarchy in 1660[4] accepted freedom of religion and the rights of a Jewish (or for that matter any other faith, though not initially Roman Catholic till the 1829 Emancipation Act owing to the Scottish and Irish situation as was perceived in England and encouraged by the popular press) minority to practice their religion so long as they obeyed the laws of the Westminster Parliament (and any bodies so created by statute or Royal perogative such as County and Parish / District councils and status now settled by constitutional referenda since 1997 after the 1975 precedence). A possible counter argument for the delay in dealing with this was fear over the 1936 constitutional crisis to the Monarchy owing to the British Royal succession and its impact on what was then the key tenets of religious opinion for leaders (at least in public and especially after the reign of Edward VII) namely one wife for life. However as church and state remain more seperate in the west it is possible for this not to be the more exact rule as faith communities have shifted more to raising the next generation and building a better world rather than judging the present one as some of the practices of those that do such as honour killings and stoning for adultery are barbaric and go against international law.
2) The UKs response in 1942, the USA following suit.
Yet the Nazis were different. After events such as Crystallnacht in 1938, wearing the Yellow star of David and registration of property and confiscation and business avoidance prior to the start of conflict in September 1939 in Germany, the UK state started receiving more refugees talking about the state of the persecution. However
W4745067 pg.3
with death camps and ghettoisation of occupied territories such as Czech and Polish lands occurring after the Second world war begun, the post war excuse for the delay was that information did not reach the UK till at least 1941 (though that does beg the question how effective the interrogation of Rudolf Hess in the Tower of London to name one case study or the SOE in its first years actually were). Study Guide 5’s Chronology in part disputes that.
The 1942 response was then initially interfaith and religious in the following year. The Roman Catholic, Church of England, Church of Scotland, United Synagogue and Reform Synagogue leaders formed a joint ctte or council of Christians and Jews to speak out about the evils of Nazi persecution and seek alternative remedies to the situation and to prevent the continuation of it. Similar initiatives followed in the other countries allied against the Nazis and after the war an international committee to co-ordinate them was founded. Thus out of darkness a force for light and peace was created (albeit one at times apparently biased towards the foundation of a unified Israel including the Palestinian 1948-67 territories until recent peace initiatives discussed below). Hence when the death camps were liberated Allied Commander General Dwight D Eisenhower (and in the 1950s US President) said something like “take pictures take movie reels take statements, take the whole damn lot, because some day some dumb bastard is gonna deny the whole evil thing took place.” Thus Christian Jewish relations were in 1945 based on the mutually humanitarian reaction that nothing such as the Holocaust should ever happen again and that a specifically Jewish homeland would be the guarantor of the future for the Israeli people. Such noble sentiments (acting on many peoples vision and prophecy) required a language and form of communication to overcome mutual hostility and negative reactions and that impacts on many spheres of society and that is discussed later on.
3) The Foundation of the modern Israeli state
Yet building on the British Governments Balfour declaration that on the Levant there should be a Jewish state became USA mantra and for Stalin a matter of realpolitik as it was a way of reducing the number of opponents he had to kill or send to Siberia, by appearing more humane and allowing them to emmigrate. The declaration of the Israeli states foundation after the surrender of the British Mandate owed to overstretch
W4745067 pg. 4
and a realisation that to allow safe access for pilgrims under the framework of international law at that time a continued imperial Christian force may have been counterproductive to any achievements under the preceding mandate in terms of shrines constructed by all the churches in the world.
4) The desire for commonality and dialogue, Dead Sea Scrolls
Hence building on the work of the British mandate in archeaologlical co-operation and the building of shrines in the mandated territories, exploration of caves around Qumran in the West Bank took place from 1946 onwards yielding scrolls and fragments of text that have been collected and published[5]. This helped to create a framework for that state to build on that was interdisciplinary and allowed for both scholastic exemption from conflict for the religious classes (many of whom lived in the 1948-67 territories that needed defending)[6] and the emergence of secular Jews who lived in Israel but didn’t practice their faith as such, whose doubts may have been generated while serving in that states military in the occupied territories. This is in turn aided engagement with the Holy Land by historically newer Christian Churches in projects such as the excavation of ‘Peters Boat’ at the Dead Sea or the 1970-80s discovery of the Red Sea Scrolls near the Sinai peninsula as previous writings on common textual backgrounds based on the Dead Sea Scrolls and previous post Renaissance and Crusades Scholarship such as Drane[7] did not fully explain the difference of interpretation of the common ( Torah. and Talmud or Old Testament) text context for the two religions and how differing Christian Denominations or religious sects of Judaism interpreted the common text or had a different translation.[8]
Taking a historigraphical perspective on this in the English speaking world one possible observation that the desire for a modern translation of the bible produced two translations after the 1960s, the Good News and the New International Version as well as an update to the English version of the Vulgate the Jerusalem Bible more
W4745067 pg. 5
recently based on changes to the vernacular across the world. This stemmed from concerns that the Authorised Bible (King James) translation was not so readily comprehended by the population at that time and the desire for Christian unity following Vatican II and similar Christian Jewish initiatives by the Vatican.
5) Impacts on Sociology and other ‘new disciplines’ taken as cures from the ills portrayed in fiction.
Such interfaith cooperation has generated two new academic disciplines in the post war world. The first is sociology or the science of society and the psychological / psychiatric sectors, created to regulate (for good and for ill) the costs, direction and healing of psychiatry by empirical data and will of the state rather than a general view of society or medieval codes and thinkers such as Moses Maimonides or one mans ideology such as Freud or Jung. This reflects the reality of each states professional bodies for each kind of sector and the emergence of social workers as day to day matters were no longer put in the care of psychiatrists and psychologists and this new sector needs a guidance for its staff that fits in with it, hence the erroneous nature of this jurisdiction that it has to be humanistic in order to protect Roman Catholics working in it for going against the teachings of the Vatican on matters such as Birth control or abortion when the medical sector works according to the Church of England. Yet owing to the facts discussed in Study Guide 2 of other denominations within the UK this is further constrained as these Christian groups have impacts on the scope of the state and how it functions practically, with theologies such that they are the true Israelites not reflecting the facts on the ground on the Holy Land prior to the instigation of the UN led Quartet.
Thus to reconcile this and to take in knowledge of the UK philosophy became a key support to theology and in the development of the rebuilding of the monarchy since 1992-7 inline with the heir to the thrones wish that the monarchy become a ‘defender of faith’ rather than just defending the faith (FD, granted to Henry VIII for his scholasticism prior to his seeking a divorce / marriage annulment). Hence the second subject is Philosophy for working out ways of engendering democracy and the counter ideology or non ideology that defeated communism in part in the name of Judeau Christian religious thought. It also acts as a moral code for those to whom
W4745067 pg. 6
religion had excluded them as well as discussed by Phillips in her books. This may have been a way of including them so that they didn’t feel radicalised from the political process if mainstream churches sought to exclude them (Study Guide 4 pgs.50-52). Thus it can be seen as a family including the whole of society even if its figurehead was head of certain values fixed to the church. This compassion could be seen as the states soft power against the church and also the church adapting to changing societal norms when rhetoric such as ‘kill as many Germans as you can’ provoked the slaughter on the Somme and is now the preserve of Al Queada (though more generally aimed at the West).
6) Impacts on Ethical and political debate
Hence this can be seen as the UK state, guided by its churches rallying against the Communism of the USSR from an economically untenable position in the 1970s the defeat of which produced the effects of the credit boom to fund space and missile research. This in turn encouraged the USSR towards Glasnost and Perestroika and aided Christians within the Warsaw Pact area be it Solidarity in Poland or the Eastern Orthodox churches in Russia and the USSR proper. Hence interfaith dialogue can work against abuse of human rights and produce greater peace talks at the end of the Cold War, a legacy of George Bush Snrs US Presidency and the mindset of never again after the Holocaust.
7) Impacts on economic and political structures of Global governance
This common language of interfaith organisations reflected a critique of the UN as better than the preceding League of Nations but still subject to restrictions on what it could do owing to bi, tri and multilateral interstate arguments such as mutually assured destruction after the Cuban Missile Crisis or the Vietnam and Korean Wars. This has since been offset by improvements in communication media such that the USA could call for the Berlin wall to come down and the whole of the Warsaw pact heard about it. The internet is the natural democratisation of media with the blogosphere relaying information about the world and trying to effect events. Christian and Jewish groups lobbied for the Gleneagles accords to reduce third world debt and lobby for change.
W4745067 pg. 7
This in turn has been a case of dialogue making a difference to key historical dates in the Middle East peace process as well. Study Guide 5 covers the following dates: 1948/9, End of mandate and partition of levant between Israel, Egypt and Jordan
1956, Suez
1967, Six day war
1979-81, Camp David initiatives till death of Sadat
1989, Fall of Berlin wall new initiatives for a middle east peace
1991, peace conference
1993 Election of President Clinton
1995, Second Camp David accords.
2000, Peace plan talks fail in USA, Sharons ‘peace’ walk on temple mount (followed up by new bridge from western wall to Temple Mount).
The dates I have selected from the reading 3 chronology are selective but highlight how when the Christian and Jewish world act together perception is key taking the Suez debacle, this was planned by Israel France and Britain due to the economics of the Suez canal and the politics of General Nasser. However in so doing it produced support for the (from the western perspective) far worse Muslim Brotherhood which in turn before, during and after 1967 aided Palestinian and Syrian terrorism in and against Israel, one of which groups was Hamas which sees its Jihad “as a universal one” to achieve Islam across the world[9], the stated goal of Al Queada and Osama Bin Laden, an alumnus of an Egyptian university.
8) Peace plan ideas
The Sixth of July 2005 was a day in which London was chosen for the Olympics. Within twenty Four hours later it had four rucksack bombs detonated on its public transport system by Islamic extremists. With the escalation of tensions in Gaza and the Middle East the government of Israel took the decision to withdraw all of its civilian and most of its military settlements from the Gaza Strip to facilitate dialogue between them and the Palestinians. It was in that context that I sought to go to Israel-Palestine as part of an interfaith study group / pilgrimage having sought interfaith co-
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operation in local government developments against the third runway at Heathrow and to better understand the situation to see if a practical solution to the grievances of Al Queada’s more rational rhetoric over Palestine, specifically West Bank settlements and the final status of Jerusalem, Bethlehem and Ramallah.
I learnt from this that Christian-Jewish relations can be difficult, for example when being asked your faith at the Western Wall and giving the answer Christian as the honest answer may be taken as offensive. Further taking the communion blessing in the Latin Chapel of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre because you haven’t received Roman Catholic instruction / induction and the service wasn’t in your vernacular language, compounded by then kneeling at the main shrine for too long while having a genuine religious experience to serve the Church of England and provinces that need to become a worldwide Anglican church if it wants to survive, esp if it closes the gates of Gethsemanee to its own nationals probably means you’re not wanted. A Gospel citing lesson from that is that honesty gets you so far and then into a whole lot of trouble perhaps? Yet in all candour it is in part my fault as I didn’t get to the BBC interview in the following months so all the Mr Ware coverage I have been unable to stop is my fault in the initial instance and I admit mea culpa. Hence my attempts to get interviewed again on the same subject to outline the following peace plan as an act of penance and peace generation, regardless of my opinions on the BBC:
The states of Israel, Palestine and its neighbours need to live in peace and security free from the threat of wmd, specifically nuclear weapons in Iran if said state continues to process its own fuel and issues rhetoric against Israel who in turn needs to surrender its nuclear weapons along with every other state (including the UK and USA) to the UN for the purpose of asteroid deflection.
Gaza Territory
The Government of Egypt surrenders its claim over the territory and it is reunified with the West Bank as part of a reformed and reborn Palestinian state with its own regional council and assembly that is pluralistic and democratic to reflect different voting allegiances within the territory with that of the west bank (which should itself
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have devolved councils with similar powers so that Palestine is a unified and federal state like The United States, Australia, Canada and Iraq and Indonesia).
West Bank Settlements
The states of Israel and Palestine recognise the need for a peace accord and a stable border in which both states nationals can live peacefully within the others territories under democratic constitutions, the rule of law and universal human rights. To this end the issue of settlements already there and the final border beyond the Territories of Jerusalem, Bethlehem and Ramallah is a bilateral one, subject to the ratification of final agreements by the UN and Jordan as former occupying powers when it surrenders its claims at the inauguration of the democratic Palestinian state.
Security Forces for Palestine
Noting the Israeli governments and peoples concerns that previous security forces for Palestinians have been drawn from sectional groups of Hamas and Fatah amongst others, training and provision of the new Palestinian military / police would be done by NATO in conjunction with Egypt and Jordan to aid peaceful borders in the longer term. A Common defence council for the region similar to NATO would also be convened to aid concerns of Arab states and would include Israel to build on its bilateral ties with Saudi Arabia, Egypt, Jordan, Iraq and Turkey and to act as a stabilising force against worrying Iranian Rhetoric.
Final Status for Jerusalem, Bethlehem and Ramallah, the indivisible trinity?
The status of Jerusalem with both states laying claim to it has been fraught with difficulty and has hampered previous attempts for a peace agreement. Noting the parable of the two women claiming the baby before King Solomon the wise that to divide by the sword will not happen, it is better to view Jerusalem as part of a Metropolitan area including the neighbouring cities of Bethlehem and Ramallah.
Such a city capital would include the UN as well so that those whose ‘joues diplomatique’ could end the world are faced with monotheisms abilities to save it so they wouldn’t be so stupid ever again such as the interdenominational Church of the Holy Sepulchre, the multi Jewish sect wailing and southern wall and Temple Mount
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(the last two linked by a peace bridge constructed while General Ariel Sharon was the democratically elected Prime Minister). These diplomats would be housed as tenants on disputed housing areas within the territory and the west bank with the rental income paying for the resettlement for those who wish to live within partitioned borders such as the Shas Orthodox Jews or the Hamas and Hizbollah supporting Palestinians. Security could be aided by Interpol and UN peacekeeping. A legal system common to that area and drawn from both states federal courts would apply and any municipal police force would have the right of pursuit and arrest across both states to deter suicide bombers and protect the pilgrims of whatever religion similar to UK police forces at present and to show that Christendom will not pogrom but obeys international law in accordance with the true spirit of the crusades to vanquish evil and defend the meek.
9) Conclusion
To conclude the absolute evil of the Holocaust as an act of genocide has impacted on Christian and Jewish dialogue as both sought ways to overcome the hurt and fear that such rhetoric, racism and genocide had created, on top of pogroms that had occurred previously to it. The UK has been a staunch supporter of this since 1942 and other states have followed suit which has impacted on academia and social policy within the state. Yet the enthusiasm of such co-operation in 1956 over Suez had unintended consequences, namely the creation of an opposing Islamist side. This requires careful reflection and negotiation for a sustained peace over the coming year. Hence whether combined with similar outreach to Islam a meaningful peace accord can be achieved in the next year is what could be examined.
Word Count: 3,721
Bibliography
1) Course Materials AA307
Chidester, David “Christianity A Global History (Penguin 2000)
Wolffe, John “Religion in History, Conflict, Conversion and Coexistence” (Manchester University Press, 2008) ISBN 0 7190 7107 0
2) Other OU materials
DD121/122 course materials
W4745067 pg. 11
AA307 Study Guides with particular reference to Study Guide two on the reformation and One regarding the crusades as well as 4 and 5.
3) Bibles
Good News Bible,
New International Bible
Revised English Bible
Book of Common Prayer
4) Books
Cohen Rev Dr A ‘Everymans Talmud’ (Dent, 1949)
Brownrigg ‘Whos Who in the New Testament’ (Dent, 1993) ISBN 0 460 86133 6
Drane, John ‘Introducing the Old Testament’ (Lion, 1987) ISBN 0754913490
Eisemann R and Wise, M ‘The dead sea scrolls uncovered’ (Element, 1994)
Hochstadt Steve “Sourcesof the Holocaust” (Palgrave Macmillan, 2004)
Isbn 0-333-96344-8 (Pbk)
Phillips, Anne “Engendering Democracy” (Phillips 1991) ISBN 0-271-00784-2
Phillips, Anne, “Democracy and Difference” (Polity, 1993) ISBN 0-7456-1096
Struk, Janina “Photographing the Holocaust” (EJS, 2004)
ISBN 186064 546 1
Vermes, Geza ‘The complete Dead Sea Scrolls in English’ (penguin 1998)
ISBN 0-14-024501-4
[1] Holtschneider, K Hannah in Chapter 8 Woolfe
[2] Study Guide 5 Chronology pg. 54
[3] See Hitler, Adolf “Mein Kampf” and speeches specifically Nuremburg.rally in the 1930s.
[4] ratifying the agreement of Oliver Cromwells Parliamentary republic
[5] Vermes, Geza ‘The complete Dead Sea Scrolls in English’ (penguin 1998)
ISBN 0-14-024501-4
[6] See Course CD 5 and study Guide 5
[7] Drane, John Introducing the Old Testament
[8] See Cohn-Sherbrook, Dan ‘Understanding Judaism’ (2000) in which he outlines that the different Jewish sects such as reform don’t agree on what to reform and that Conservative Jews, don’t agree on what to Conserve.
[9] Reading 12, pg. 119 study guide 5
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